Our Holding Company Structure and Contractual Arrangements with the VIEs Hello Group Inc. is not a Chinese mainland operating company, but rather a Cayman Islands holding company with no equity ownership in the consolidated variable interest entities, or the VIEs. Our Cayman Islands holding company does not conduct business operations directly. We conduct our operations in Chinese mainland through (i) our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and (ii) the VIEs with which we have maintained contractual arrangements and their subsidiaries in Chinese mainland. PRC laws and regulations impose certain restrictions or prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies that engage in certain value-added telecommunication services, internet audio-video program services and certain other businesses. Accordingly, we operate these businesses in Chinese mainland through the VIEs and their subsidiaries, and rely on contractual arrangements among our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, the VIEs and their nominee shareholders to control the business operations of the VIEs. The VIEs are consolidated for accounting purposes, but are not entities in which our Cayman Islands holding company, or our investors, own equity. This structure involves unique risks to investors. Investors in our ADSs are not purchasing equity interest in the VIEs in Chinese mainland, but instead are purchasing equity interest in a holding company incorporated in the Cayman Islands, and the VIE structure provides contractual exposure to foreign investment in the companies which involve foreign investment restrictions or prohibitions. Revenues contributed by the VIEs accounted for 93.3%, 88.9% and 80.7% of our total revenues for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. As used in this annual report, “we,” “us,” “our company,” “our,” or “Hello Group” refers to Hello Group Inc., its subsidiaries, and, in the context of describing our operations and consolidated financial information, the VIEs and their subsidiaries in Chinese mainland, including but not limited to Beijing Momo Technology Co., Ltd., or Beijing Momo, Tianjin Heer Technology Co., Ltd., or Tianjin Heer, Loudi Momo Technology Co. Ltd., or Loudi Momo, Chengdu Momo Technology Co. Ltd., or Chengdu Momo, Tantan Culture Development (Beijing) Co., Ltd., or Tantan Culture, Tianjin Apollo Exploration Culture Co., Ltd., or Tianjin Apollo, Beijing Top Maker Technology Co., Ltd. (formerly known as Beijing Fancy Reader Technology Co., Ltd.), or Beijing Top Maker, Beijing Perfect Match Technology Co., Ltd., or Beijing Perfect Match, and SpaceTime (Beijing) Technology Co., Ltd., or SpaceTime Beijing. Our subsidiaries, the VIEs and their shareholders have entered into a series of contractual agreements. These contractual arrangements enable us to: • receive the economic benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIEs in consideration for the services provided by our subsidiaries; • exercise effective control over the VIEs; and • hold an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interests in the VIEs when and to the extent permitted by PRC law. 2 Table of Contents A series of contractual agreements, including business operation agreements, exclusive call option agreements, equity interest pledge agreements, exclusive cooperation agreements, power of attorney and spousal consent letters, have been entered into by and among our subsidiaries, the VIEs and their respective shareholders. Terms contained in each set of contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders are substantially similar. Despite the lack of legal majority ownership, our Cayman Island holding company is considered the primary beneficiary of the VIEs for accounting purposes and consolidates the VIEs and their subsidiaries as required by Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, topic 810, Consolidation. Accordingly, we treat the VIEs as the consolidated entities under the accounting principles generally accepted in the United States, or U.S. GAAP, and we consolidate the financial results of the VIEs in the consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. For more details of these contractual arrangements, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—C. Organizational Structure—Contractual Arrangements with the VIEs and Their Respective Shareholders.” However, the contractual arrangements may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing us with control over the VIEs and we may incur substantial costs to enforce the terms of the arrangements. Uncertainties in the Chinese mainland legal system may limit our ability, as a Cayman Islands holding company, to enforce these contractual arrangements. Meanwhile, there are very few precedents as to whether contractual arrangements would be judged to form effective control over the VIEs through the contractual arrangements, or how contractual arrangements in the context of a VIE should be interpreted or enforced by the Chinese mainland courts. Should legal actions become necessary, we cannot guarantee that the court will rule in favor of the enforceability of the VIE contractual arrangements. In the event we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements, or if we suffer significant delay or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, we may not be able to exert effective control over the VIEs, and our ability to conduct our business may be materially adversely affected. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders for our operations in Chinese mainland, which may not be as effective in providing operational control as direct ownership” and “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—The shareholders of the VIEs may have potential conflicts of interest with us, which may materially and adversely affect our business.” There are also substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules regarding the status of the rights of our Cayman Islands holding company with respect to its contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their nominee shareholders. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws or regulations relating to variable interest entity structures will be adopted or if adopted, what they would provide. If we or any of the VIEs is found to be in violation of any existing or future PRC laws or regulations, or fail to obtain or maintain any of the required permits or approvals, the Chinese mainland regulatory authorities may take action in dealing with such violations or failures. If the Chinese mainland government deems that our contractual arrangements with the VIEs do not comply with Chinese mainland regulatory restrictions on foreign investment in the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change or are interpreted differently in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations. Since Chinese mainland administrative and court authorities have authority in interpreting and implementing statutory provisions and contractual terms, it may be difficult to evaluate the outcome of administrative and court proceedings and the level of legal protection we enjoy. Our Cayman Islands holding company, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs, and investors of our company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the Chinese mainland government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of the VIEs and our company as a whole. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—If the Chinese mainland government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating certain of our operations in Chinese mainland do not comply with Chinese mainland regulations relating to the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations” and “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—We face uncertainties with respect to the implementation of the PRC Foreign Investment Law and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations.” Our corporate structure is subject to risks associated with our contractual arrangements with the VIEs. The company and its investors may never have a direct ownership interest in the businesses that are conducted by the VIEs. Uncertainties in the Chinese mainland legal system could limit our ability to enforce these contractual arrangements, and these contractual arrangements have not been tested in a court of law. If the Chinese mainland government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating our business in Chinese mainland do not comply with PRC laws and regulations, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change or are interpreted differently in the future, we and the VIEs could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations. This would result in the VIEs being deconsolidated. The majority of our assets, including the necessary licenses to conduct business in Chinese mainland, are held by the VIEs. A significant part of our revenues are generated by the VIEs. An event that results in the deconsolidation of the VIEs would have a material effect on our operations and result in the value of the securities of our company diminish substantially or even become worthless. Our company, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs, and investors of our company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the Chinese mainland government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of the VIEs and our company as a whole. Hello Group Inc. may not be able to repay its indebtedness, and the Class A ordinary shares or ADSs of our company may decline in value or become worthless, if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs that conduct all or substantially all of our operations. For a detailed description of the risks associated with our corporate structure, please refer to risks disclosed under “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure.” 3 Table of Contents Other Risks Related to Our Chinese mainland Operations We face various risks and uncertainties related to doing business in Chinese mainland. Our business operations are primarily conducted in Chinese mainland, and we are subject to complex and evolving PRC laws and regulations. For example, we face risks associated with statements and regulatory actions by Chinese mainland’s government, such as those related to the use of variable interest entities, regulatory approvals on offshore offerings, anti-monopoly regulatory actions, and oversight on cybersecurity and data privacy, which may impact our ability to conduct certain businesses, accept foreign investments or financing, or list on a United States or other overseas exchange. These risks could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs, significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to continue to offer securities to investors, or cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or become worthless. For a detailed description of risks related to doing business in Chinese Mainland, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland.” For example, in December 2021, the Cyberspace Administration of China, or the CAC, together with other authorities, jointly promulgated the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which became effective on February 15, 2022 and replaced its predecessor regulation. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, critical information infrastructure operators that procure internet products and services, and operators of network platforms conducting data processing activities must be subject to the cybersecurity review if their activities affect or may affect national security. The Cybersecurity Review Measures further stipulates that network platform operators that hold personal information of over one million users shall apply with the Cybersecurity Review Office for a cybersecurity review before any initial public offering at a foreign stock exchange. Given that the Cybersecurity Review Measures were recently promulgated, there are substantial uncertainties as to its interpretation, application, and enforcement. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Our business is subject to complex and evolving Chinese and international laws and regulations regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and uncertain interpretation, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in claims, changes to our business practices, negative publicity, legal proceedings, increased cost of operations, declines in user base or engagement, or otherwise harm our business.” In addition, on February 17, 2023, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC, promulgated Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and relevant five guidelines, which became effective on March 31, 2023. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures comprehensively improves and reforms the existing regulatory regime for overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities and regulates both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities by adopting a filing-based regulatory regime. According to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, any of our offering and listing in an overseas market in future may be subject to the filing with the CSRC. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval.” Furthermore, the PRC anti-monopoly regulators have promulgated new anti-monopoly and competition laws and regulations and strengthened the enforcement under these laws and regulations. There remain uncertainties as to how the laws, regulations and guidelines recently promulgated will be implemented and whether these laws, regulations and guidelines will have a material impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. We cannot assure you that our business operations comply with such regulations and authorities’ requirements in all respects. If any non-compliance is raised by relevant authorities and determined against us, we may be subject to fines and other penalties. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with the Anti-Monopoly Guidelines for Platforms Economy Sector and other Chinese mainland anti-monopoly laws and regulations may result in governmental investigations or enforcement actions, litigation or claims against us and could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.” 4 Table of Contents Chinese mainland government’s significant authority in regulating our operations and its oversight and control over offerings conducted overseas by, and foreign investment in, Chinese mainland-based issuers could significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors. Implementation of industry-wide regulations in this nature may cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or become worthless. For more details, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The Chinese mainland government’s significant oversight and discretion over our business operations could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs.” Risks and uncertainties arising from the legal system in Chinese mainland, including risks and uncertainties regarding the enforcement of laws and quickly evolving rules and regulations in Chinese mainland, could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs. For more details, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us.” The Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act Pursuant to the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, which was enacted on December 18, 2020 and further amended by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 signed into law on December 29, 2022, or the HFCAA, if the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, determines that we have filed audit reports issued by a registered public accounting firm that has not been subject to inspections by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), or the PCAOB, for two consecutive years, the SEC will prohibit our shares or the ADSs from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report to notify the SEC of its determination that the PCAOB was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong, including our auditor. In May 2022, the SEC conclusively listed us as a Commission-Identified Issuer under the HFCAA following the filing of the annual report on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed Chinese mainland and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. Since then, the PCAOB has not issued any new determination regarding its ability to inspect or investigate registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong. As a result, we were no longer identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer under the HFCAA after we filed our annual report on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2022. Each year, the PCAOB will determine whether it can inspect and investigate completely audit firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong, among other jurisdictions. If the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in certain jurisdictions and we continue to use an accounting firm headquartered in one of those jurisdictions to issue an audit report on our financial statements to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, we would be identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer following the filing of the annual report on Form 20-F for the relevant fiscal year. There can be no assurance that we would not be identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer for any future fiscal year, and if we were so identified for two consecutive years, we would become subject to the prohibition on trading under the HFCAA. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The PCAOB had historically been unable to inspect our auditor in relation to their audit work performed for our financial statements and the inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of our auditor in the past has deprived our investors with the benefits of such inspections,” and “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Doing Business in Chinese mainland—Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCAA in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in Chinese mainland. The delisting of the ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment.” 5 Table of Contents Cash Flow Through Our Organization Hello Group Inc. is a holding company with no operations of its own. We conduct our operations primarily through our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, the VIEs and their subsidiaries in Chinese mainland. As a result, Hello Group Inc.’s ability to pay dividends depends upon dividends paid by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries. If our existing Chinese mainland subsidiaries or any newly formed ones incur debt on their own behalf in the future, the instruments governing their debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends to us. In addition, current Chinese mainland regulations permit our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to pay dividends to their respective shareholders only out of their accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with Chinese mainland accounting standards and regulations. Furthermore, each of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs is required to set aside at least 10% of its after-tax profits each year, if any, to fund a statutory reserve until such reserve reaches 50% of its registered capital. Each of such entities in Chinese mainland is also required to further set aside a portion of its after-tax profits to fund the employee welfare fund, although the amount to be set aside, if any, is determined at the discretion of its board of directors. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. For more details, see “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects—B. Liquidity and Capital Resources—Holding Company Structure.” Our subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends is based upon their distributable earnings. Under PRC laws and regulations, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs are subject to certain restrictions with respect to paying dividends or otherwise transferring any of their net assets to us. Remittance of dividends by a wholly foreign-owned enterprise out of Chinese mainland is also subject to examination by the banks designated by State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or SAFE. The amounts restricted include the paid-up capital and the statutory reserve funds of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the net assets of the VIEs in which we have no legal ownership, totaling RMB1.5 billion, RMB1.5 billion and RMB1.5 billion (US$0.2 billion) as of December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. For risks relating to the fund flows of our operations in Chinese mainland, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—We may rely on dividends paid by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to fund cash and financing requirements. Any limitation on the ability of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to pay dividends to us could have a material adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business and to pay dividends to holders of the ADSs and our ordinary shares.” For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, the Company declared and distributed cash dividends with amount of US$136.6 million, US$98.9 million and US$47.9 million to its investors, respectively, which was funded by surplus cash on our balance sheet. For the year ended December 31, 2023, Beijing Momo IT declared dividends with amount of RMB1,800.0 million, which was paid in January 2024. For the year ended December 31, 2024, Beijing Momo IT declared dividends with amount of RMB6,000.0 million, among which RMB4,000.0 million was paid in 2024 and RMB2,000.0 million was paid in the first quarter of 2025. For the year ended December 31, 2025, Beijing Momo IT declared and paid dividends with amount of RMB800.0 million (US$114.4 million) With respect to the related withholding tax, Beijing Momo IT paid RMB180.0 million in 2023 and RMB80.0 million (US$11.4 million) in 2025 in connection with the dividends declared in those respective years. For the dividends declared in 2024, withholding tax of RMB200.0 million was paid in 2024 based on the reduced tax rate applied at that time. In 2025, following a reassessment by the tax authority, the applicable withholding tax rate was determined to be 10%, and an additional RMB400.0 million was paid, including RMB100.0 million relating to the remaining portion of the 2024 dividends and RMB300.0 million representing the incremental tax due to the change in tax rate. Under PRC law, Hello Group Inc. may provide funding to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries only through capital contributions or loans, and to the VIEs only through loans, subject to satisfaction of applicable government registration and approval requirements. Hello Group Inc., its subsidiaries and the VIEs may also transfer cash for settlement of intra-group transactions. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, Hello Group Inc. received repayment of RMB145.4 million, nil and nil from, respectively, its subsidiaries outside of Chinese mainland, or the Other Subsidiaries. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, the Other Subsidiaries provided loans of nil, RMB1,394.9 million and received repayment of RMB1,040.6 million (US$148.8 million), respectively, to Hello Group Inc. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, the Chinese mainland subsidiaries provided cash advances of RMB4,600.0 million to, received repayment of RMB3,500.0 million and RMB1,100.0 million (US$157.3 million) from, respectively, Hello Group Inc. 6 Table of Contents For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, the Chinese mainland subsidiaries of Hello Group Inc. provided cash advances of nil, RMB1,660 million and RMB496.1 million (US$70.9 million), respectively, to the Other Subsidiaries. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, the VIEs provided cash advances of RMB697.4 million, RMB1,967.3 million and RMB675.0 million (US$96.5 million), respectively, to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries. The VIEs may transfer cash to the subsidiaries of Hello Group Inc. by paying service fees and license fees pursuant to certain contractual arrangements among them, and we intend to settle the services fees and license fees through such contractual arrangements going forward. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, subsidiaries of Hello Group Inc. received license fee, technical service fees and non-technical services fees with amount of RMB3,948.9 million, RMB3,125.1 million and RMB2,797.5 million (US$400.0 million), respectively, from the VIEs. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, cash paid by the VIEs to the subsidiaries of Hello Group Inc. for other operation service fees were RMB7.8 million, RMB13.2 million and RMB1.3 million (US$0.2 million), respectively. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, cash paid by the subsidiaries of Hello Group Inc. to VIEs for other operation service fees were RMB0.2 million, RMB82.2 thousand and nil, respectively. We have established stringent controls and procedures for cash flows within our organization. Each transfer of cash between our Cayman Islands holding company and a subsidiary, the VIE or the subsidiaries of the VIE is subject to internal approval. The cash of our group is under the unified management of our finance department, and is dispatched and applied to each operating entity based on the budget and operating conditions of the specific operating entity. Each cash requirement, after raised by an operating entity, is required to go through a two-level review process of our finance department. The funding team of the finance department will allocate the cash to the operating entity after the application for cash requirement is approved by the responsible person in the finance department. For more details regarding our intragroup cash flow, see the condensed consolidating schedules and statements under “Financial Information Related to the VIEs.” Our Chinese mainland subsidiaries may charge the VIEs for services provided to the VIEs. These service fees shall be recognized as expenses of the VIEs, with a corresponding amount as service income by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and eliminate in consolidation. For income tax purposes, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs file income tax returns on a separate company basis. The service fees paid are recognized as a tax deduction by the VIEs and as income by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and are tax neutral. Permissions Required from the Chinese mainland Authorities for Our Operations We conduct our business primarily through our subsidiaries and the VIEs in Chinese mainland. Our operations in Chinese mainland are governed by PRC laws and regulations. As of the date of this annual report, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, the VIEs and their subsidiaries have obtained the requisite licenses and permits from the Chinese mainland government authorities that are material for the business operations of our holding company, the VIEs in Chinese mainland, including, among others, the Value-added Telecommunications Business Operation License for information services via internet, or ICP License, and the Internet Culture Operation License. Given the uncertainties of interpretation and implementation of the laws and regulations and the enforcement practice by the government authorities, we may be required to obtain additional licenses, permits, filings or approvals for the functions and services of our platform in the future, and may not be able to maintain or renew our current licenses, permits, filings or approvals. For more detailed information, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—If we fail to obtain and maintain the requisite licenses and approvals required under the complex regulatory environment applicable to our businesses in Chinese mainland, or if we are required to take compliance actions that are time-consuming or costly, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.” 7 Table of Contents Furthermore, under current PRC laws, regulations and regulatory rules, we, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs may be required to obtain permissions from or complete filings with the CSRC, and may be required to go through cybersecurity review by the CAC, in connection with any future offering and listing in an overseas market. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been subject to any cybersecurity review made by the CAC. If we fail to obtain the relevant approval or complete other review or filing procedures for any future offshore offering or listing, we may face sanctions by the CSRC or other Chinese mainland regulatory authorities, which may include fines and penalties on our operations in Chinese mainland, limitations on our operating privileges in Chinese mainland, restrictions on or prohibition of the payments or remittance of dividends by our subsidiaries in Chinese mainland, restrictions on or delays to our future financing transactions offshore, or other actions that could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, reputation and prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs. For more detailed information, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval” and “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Chinese mainland regulation of loans to, and direct investment in, Chinese mainland entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may restrict or prevent us from using offshore funds to make loans to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries, or to make additional capital contributions to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries.” Financial Information Related to the VIEs The following table presents the condensed consolidating schedule of financial position for Hello Group Inc., its wholly foreign-owned entities, or the WFOEs, that are the primary beneficiaries of the VIEs under U.S. GAAP, or the Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs, its other subsidiaries that are not the Primary Beneficiaries of the VIEs, or the Other Subsidiaries, and the VIEs and their subsidiaries, or the VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries, as of the dates presented. Selected Condensed Consolidating Statements of Income Information For the Year Ended December 31, 2025 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Third-party revenues — 2,000,002 — 8,367,094 — 10,367,096 Inter-company revenues — — 2,866,872 — (2,866,872 ) — Total costs and expenses (94,603 ) (2,177,167 ) (1,721,941 ) (7,923,280 ) 2,866,872 (9,050,119 ) Income from subsidiaries and VIEs 830,951 1,507,321 382,348 — (2,720,620 ) — Other income (loss) 51,810 140,365 114,316 38,805 — 345,296 Income before income tax expense and share of loss on equity method investments 788,158 1,470,521 1,641,595 482,619 (2,720,620 ) 1,662,273 Income tax expenses — (637,058 ) (131,616 ) (74,195 ) — (842,869 ) Share of income (loss) on equity method investments 15,855 — (2,658 ) (26,076 ) — (12,879 ) Net income 804,013 833,463 1,507,321 382,348 (2,720,620 ) 806,525 Less: net loss attributable to non-controlling interests — 2,512 — — — 2,512 Net income attributable to Hello Group’s shareholders 804,013 830,951 1,507,321 382,348 (2,720,620 ) 804,013 8 Table of Contents For the Year Ended December 31, 2024 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Third-party revenues — 1,170,891 — 9,392,080 — 10,562,971 Inter-company revenues — — 3,104,475 78 (3,104,553 ) — Total costs and expenses (126,880 ) (1,214,335 ) (1,798,460 ) (9,054,082 ) 3,104,553 (9,089,204 ) Income from subsidiaries and VIEs 1,010,738 1,457,816 160,180 — (2,628,734 ) — Other income (loss) 74,155 115,181 190,309 (28,033 ) — 351,612 Income before income tax expense and share of loss on equity method investments 958,013 1,529,553 1,656,504 310,043 (2,628,734 ) 1,825,379 Income tax expenses — (518,815 ) (195,625 ) (130,582 ) — (845,022 ) Share of income (loss) on equity method investments 81,560 — (3,063 ) (19,281 ) — 59,216 Net income 1,039,573 1,010,738 1,457,816 160,180 (2,628,734 ) 1,039,573 Less: net loss attributable to non-controlling interests — — — — — — Net income attributable to Hello Group’s shareholders 1,039,573 1,010,738 1,457,816 160,180 (2,628,734 ) 1,039,573 For the Year Ended December 31, 2023 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Third-party revenues — 798,345 28 11,203,950 — 12,002,323 Inter-company revenues(1) — — 3,835,910 231 (3,836,141 ) — Total costs and expenses (159,257 ) (775,970 ) (2,062,423 ) (10,665,903 ) 3,836,141 (9,827,412 ) Income from subsidiaries and the VIEs(2) 2,161,383 2,320,998 448,441 — (4,930,822 ) — Other (loss) income (691 ) 1,974 371,841 104,326 — 477,450 Income before income tax expense and share of loss on equity method investments 2,001,435 2,345,347 2,593,797 642,604 (4,930,822 ) 2,652,361 Income tax expenses — (183,981 ) (270,524 ) (175,518 ) — (630,023 ) Share of loss on equity method investments (43,854 ) — (2,275 ) (24,514 ) — (70,643 ) Net income 1,957,581 2,161,366 2,320,998 442,572 (4,930,822 ) 1,951,695 Less: net loss attributable to non-controlling interests — (17 ) — (5,869 ) — (5,886 ) Net income attributable to Hello Group’s shareholders 1,957,581 2,161,383 2,320,998 448,441 (4,930,822 ) 1,957,581 9 Table of Contents Selected Condensed Consolidating Balance Sheets Information For the Year Ended December 31, 2025 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Cash and cash equivalents 159,592 1,274,915 3,170,132 715,383 — 5,320,022 Short-term deposits 349,655 312,552 2,300,000 150,000 — 3,112,207 Restricted cash 83,917 20,979 — 15,716 — 120,612 Short-term investment 23,305 101,408 — — — 124,713 Accounts receivable — 121,410 — 124,798 — 246,208 Amount due from Group companies 719,929 — — 3,974,672 (4,694,601 ) — Other current assets 47,977 101,596 321,903 362,481 (20,889 ) 813,068 Property and equipment, net — 371,078 1,047,930 1,022 — 1,420,030 Investment in subsidiaries and VIEs 9,903,690 10,955,309 4,513,064 — (25,372,063 ) — Long-term investments 196,517 1,034,275 129,266 153,984 — 1,514,042 Goodwill — 596,299 — — — 596,299 Other non-current assets — 287,005 75,321 149,772 — 512,098 Total assets 11,484,582 15,176,826 11,557,616 5,647,828 (30,087,553 ) 13,779,299 Accounts payable — 54,893 63,039 466,625 — 584,557 Deferred revenue — 71,502 — 396,719 — 468,221 Amount due to Group companies — 3,433,697 1,260,904 — (4,694,601 ) — Other current liabilities 50,760 275,374 403,312 307,567 (10,000 ) 1,027,013 Deferred tax liabilities — 521,832 8,597 1,567 — 531,996 Other non-current liabilities 39,605 31,513 9,928 1,678 — 82,724 Total liabilities 90,365 4,388,811 1,745,780 1,174,156 (4,704,601 ) 2,694,511 Total shareholders’ equity 11,394,217 10,788,015 9,811,836 4,473,672 (25,382,952 ) 11,084,788 Total liabilities and shareholders’ equity 11,484,582 15,176,826 11,557,616 5,647,828 (30,087,553 ) 13,779,299 10 Table of Contents For the Year Ended December 31, 2024 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Cash and cash equivalents 1,347,547 394,475 1,319,665 1,060,972 — 4,122,659 Short-term deposits 1,096,681 379,564 550,000 — — 2,026,245 Restricted cash — 2,678,842 1,856,532 31,103 — 4,566,477 Accounts receivable — 42,060 — 150,257 — 192,317 Amount due from Group companies — — 97,688 3,279,371 (3,377,059 ) — Other current assets 89,499 381,602 315,858 338,102 (20,889 ) 1,104,172 Long-term deposits 1,459,860 — 1,450,000 150,000 — 3,059,860 Long-term restricted cash 87,592 65,693 800,000 — — 953,285 Investment in subsidiaries and VIEs 13,350,629 9,116,312 4,130,716 — (26,597,657 ) — Long-term investments 226,608 300,000 116,923 182,002 — 825,533 Other non-current assets 14,599 259,190 1,074,580 184,053 — 1,532,422 Total assets 17,673,015 13,617,738 11,711,962 5,375,860 (29,995,605 ) 18,382,970 Accounts payable — 58,918 45,963 510,373 — 615,254 Deferred revenue — 32,807 — 394,895 — 427,702 Amount due to Group companies 1,730,299 1,646,760 — — (3,377,059 ) — Short-term borrowings 2,365,535 — — — — 2,365,535 Long-term borrowings, current portion 1,938,385 — — — — 1,938,385 Other current liabilities 99,240 67,612 512,760 372,044 — 1,051,656 Other non-current liabilities 41,459 390,160 110,654 9,492 — 551,765 Total liabilities 6,174,918 2,196,257 669,377 1,286,804 (3,377,059 ) 6,950,297 Total shareholders’ equity 11,498,097 11,421,481 11,042,585 4,089,056 (26,618,546 ) 11,432,673 Total liabilities and shareholders’ equity 17,673,015 13,617,738 11,711,962 5,375,860 (29,995,605 ) 18,382,970 Selected Condensed Consolidating Cash Flows Information For the Year Ended December 31, 2025 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Net cash (used in) provided by operating activities 21,799 (202,025 ) 1,042,073 321,262 — 1,183,109 Advances to Hello Group companies — — (496,148 ) (675,022 ) 1,171,170 — Receival of advances repayment from Hello Group companies — 1,040,555 1,100,000 — (2,140,555 ) — Cash dividends received from subsidiaries 4,234,020 2,800,000 — — (7,034,020 ) — Purchase of property and equipment — (336,841 ) (155,676 ) — — (492,517 ) Purchase of term deposits — (659,094 ) (1,933,629 ) — — (2,592,723 ) Cash received on maturity of term deposits 2,158,008 745,344 1,633,629 — — 4,536,981 Payment for long term investments — (467,259 ) (15,000 ) — — (482,259 ) Payment for short term investments (25,379 ) (97,017 ) — — — (122,396 ) Payment for business acquisition — (633,877 ) — — — (633,877 ) Other investing activities (21,562 ) (7,713 ) (20,214 ) 750 — (48,739 ) Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities 6,345,087 2,384,098 112,962 (674,272 ) (8,003,405 ) 164,470 Proceeds from advances from Hello Group companies — 496,148 675,022 — (1,171,170 ) — Repayment of advances from Hello Group companies (2,140,555 ) — — — 2,140,555 — Dividends payment to parent companies — (4,234,020 ) (2,800,000 ) — 7,034,020 — Repayment of short-term borrowings (2,365,535 ) — — — — (2,365,535 ) Repayment of long-term borrowings (1,938,385 ) (1,737 ) — — — (1,940,122 ) Repurchase of ordinary shares (749,983 ) — — — — (749,983 ) Dividends payment to Hello Group’s shareholders (346,182 ) — — — — (346,182 ) Other financing activities (20,216 ) (17,132 ) — — — (37,348 ) Net cash (used in) provided by financing activities (7,560,856 ) (3,756,741 ) (2,124,978 ) — 8,003,405 (5,439,170 ) 11 Table of Contents For the Year Ended December 31, 2024 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Net cash (used in) provided by operating activities (65,659 ) (196,163 ) 1,511,932 389,884 — 1,639,994 Advances to Hello Group companies — (1,394,856 ) (1,660,000 ) (1,967,298 ) 5,022,154 — Receival of advances repayment from Hello Group companies — — 3,500,000 — (3,500,000 ) — Cash dividends received from subsidiaries 2,020,000 5,620,000 — — (7,640,000 ) — Purchase of short-term deposits (1,756,463 ) (372,398 ) (4,225 ) — — (2,133,086 ) Cash received on maturity of short-term deposits 1,573,957 — 554,224 — — 2,128,181 Purchase of long-term deposits (718,860 ) — — — — (718,860 ) Cash received on maturity of long-term deposits 718,860 — 200,000 — — 918,860 Payment for business acquisition — (136,642 ) — — — (136,642 ) Loan to third-party companies (14,391 ) (251,222 ) — — — (265,613 ) Other investing activities (50,351 ) (38,344 ) (265,082 ) 2,050 — (351,727 ) Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities 1,772,752 3,426,538 2,324,917 (1,965,248 ) (6,117,846 ) (558,887 ) Proceeds from advances from Hello Group companies 1,394,856 1,660,000 1,967,298 — (5,022,154 ) — Repayment of advances from Hello Group companies (3,500,000 ) — — — 3,500,000 — Dividends payment to parent companies — (2,020,000 ) (5,620,000 ) — 7,640,000 — Proceeds from short-term borrowings 2,365,535 — — — — 2,365,535 Repayment of long-term borrowings (215,615 ) — — — — (215,615 ) Repurchase of ordinary shares (1,197,439 ) — — — — (1,197,439 ) Dividends payment to Hello Group’s shareholders (716,302 ) — — — — (716,302 ) Other financing activities 18 — — — — 18 Net cash (used in) provided by financing activities (1,868,947 ) (360,000 ) (3,652,702 ) — 6,117,846 236,197 12 Table of Contents For the Year Ended December 31, 2023 Hello Group, Inc. Other Subsidiaries Primary Beneficiaries of VIEs VIEs and Their Consolidated Subsidiaries Eliminating Adjustments Consolidated Totals (in RMB thousands) Net cash provided by (used in) operating activities(4) 212,146 (388,975 ) 2,072,403 381,587 — 2,277,161 Advances to Hello Group companies — — (4,600,000 ) (697,402 ) 5,297,402 — Receival of advances repayment from Hello Group companies 145,442 — — — (145,442 ) — Cash dividends received from subsidiaries — 180,000 — — (180,000 ) — Cash received from sales of short-term investment — — 308,550 — — 308,550 Purchase of short-term deposits (1,028,556 ) — — — — (1,028,556 ) Cash received on maturity of short-term deposits 509,820 — 4,850,000 850,000 — 6,209,820 Purchase of long-term deposits (1,810,025 ) — (2,250,000 ) (150,000 ) — (4,210,025 ) Cash received on maturity of long-term deposits — — 1,700,000 — — 1,700,000 Other investing activities — — (592,796 ) 26,076 — (566,720 ) Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities (2,183,319 ) 180,000 (584,246 ) 28,674 4,971,960 2,413,069 Proceeds from advances from Hello Group companies 4,600,000 — 697,402 — (5,297,402 ) — Repayment of advances from Hello Group companies — (145,442 ) — — 145,442 — Dividends payment to parent companies — — (180,000 ) — 180,000 — Payment in relation to redemption of convertible bonds (2,679,942 ) — — — — (2,679,942 ) Proceeds from long-term borrowings 2,154,000 — — — — 2,154,000 Repurchase of ordinary share (212,195 ) — — — — (212,195 ) Dividends payment to Hello Group’s shareholders (958,052 ) — — — — (958,052 ) Other financing activities 601 (4,319 ) — — — (3,718 ) Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 2,904,412 (149,761 ) 517,402 — (4,971,960 ) (1,699,907 ) Notes: (1) Represents the elimination of the intercompany service charge at the consolidation level. (2) Represents the elimination of the investment among Hello Group Inc., other subsidiaries, the primary beneficiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries. (3) Represents the elimination of intercompany balances among Hello Group Inc., other subsidiaries, the primary beneficiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries. (4) For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, cash paid by the VIEs to the primary beneficiaries for license fee, technical service fees and non-technical service fees were RMB3,948.9 million, RMB3,125.1 million and RMB2,797.5 million (US$400.0 million), respectively. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, cash paid by the VIEs to the primary beneficiaries for other operation service fee were RMB7.8 million, RMB13.2 million and RMB1.3 million (US$0.2 million), respectively. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, cash paid by the primary beneficiaries to VIEs for other operation service fees were RMB0.2 million, RMB82.2 thousand and nil, respectively. A. [Reserved] B. Capitalization and Indebtedness Not applicable. 13 Table of Contents C. Reasons for the Offer and Use of Proceeds Not applicable. D. Risk Factors Summary of Risk Factors An investment in our ADSs or Class A ordinary shares involves significant risks. Below is a summary of material risks we face, organized under relevant headings. These risks are discussed more fully in Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors. Risks Related to Our Business and Industry • We cannot guarantee that the monetization strategies we have adopted will be successfully implemented or generate sustainable revenues and profits; • If we fail to retain our existing users, further grow our user base, or if user engagement on our platform declines, our business and operating results may be materially and adversely affected; • We operate in a highly dynamic Chinese mainland and international markets, which makes it difficult to evaluate our future prospects; • We currently generate a majority of our revenues from our value-added services. We may not be able to grow or generate positive returns from such services; • We may not be able to successfully maintain and increase the number of paying users for the various services we offer on our platform; • Our business is dependent on the strength of our brands and market perception of our brand; • A severe or prolonged downturn in the Chinese or global economy could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations; • Our business is subject to complex and evolving Chinese and international laws and regulations regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and uncertain interpretation, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in claims, changes to our business practices, negative publicity, legal proceedings, increased cost of operations, declines in user base or engagement, or otherwise harm our business; • Content posted or displayed on our social networking platform, including the live video shows hosted by us or our users, has been and may again be found objectionable by Chinese mainland or international regulatory authorities and may subject us to penalties and other serious consequences; and • We have limited experience in international markets. If we fail to meet the challenges presented by our international operations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure • We are a Cayman Islands holding company with no equity ownership in the VIEs and we conduct our operations in Chinese mainland through our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs. If the Chinese mainland government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating certain of our operations in Chinese mainland do not comply with Chinese mainland regulations relating to the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations. Our holding company, the VIEs, and investors of our company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the Chinese mainland government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of the VIEs and our company as a group. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—If the Chinese mainland government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating certain of our operations in Chinese mainland do not comply with Chinese mainland regulations relating to the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations;” 14 Table of Contents • We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders for our operations in Chinese mainland, which may not be as effective in providing operational control as direct ownership. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders for our operations in Chinese mainland, which may not be as effective in providing operational control as direct ownership;” and • We may lose the ability to use and enjoy assets held by the VIEs that are important to the operation of our business if the VIEs declare bankruptcy or become subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—We may lose the ability to use and enjoy assets held by the VIEs that are important to the operation of the business if the VIEs declare bankruptcy or become subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding.” Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland • The PCAOB had historically been unable to inspect our auditor in relation to their audit work performed for our financial statements and the inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of our auditor in the past has deprived our investors with the benefits of such inspections. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The PCAOB had historically been unable to inspect our auditor in relation to their audit work performed for our financial statements and the inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of our auditor in the past has deprived our investors with the benefits of such inspections;” • Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCAA in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in Chinese mainland. The delisting of the ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCAA in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in Chinese mainland. The delisting of the ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment;” • The Chinese mainland government’s significant oversight and discretion over our business operations could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs. The Chinese government may intervene or influence our operations at any time, or may exert more control over offerings conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers, which could result in a material change in our operations and/or the value of our securities. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The Chinese mainland government’s significant oversight and discretion over our business operations could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs;” • Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us. Rules and regulations in China can change quickly with little advance notice. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors —Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us;” • We face uncertainties with respect to the implementation of the PRC Foreign Investment Law and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—We face uncertainties with respect to the implementation of the PRC Foreign Investment Law and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations;” 15 Table of Contents • Chinese mainland’s M&A Rules and certain other Chinese mainland regulations establish complex procedures for some acquisitions of Chinese companies by foreign investors, which could make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions in Chinese mainland. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Chinese mainland’s M&A Rules and certain other Chinese mainland regulations establish complex procedures for some acquisitions of Chinese companies by foreign investors, which could make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions in Chinese mainland;” and • The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval. Any actions by the Chinese government to exert more oversight and control over offerings that are conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers could significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors and cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or be worthless. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval.” Risks Related to our ADSs • The trading price of our ADSs is likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors; • We believe that we were a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for U.S. federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2025, which could result in significant adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. Holders of our ADSs or ordinary shares; and • If we are deemed to be an investment company under the Investment Company Act of 1940, applicable restrictions could have a material adverse effect on our business and the price of our ADSs and Class A ordinary shares. Risks Related to Our Business and Industry We cannot guarantee that the monetization strategies we have adopted will be successfully implemented or generate sustainable revenues and profits. Our monetization model has been evolving. In 2025, we derived 98.5% of our net revenues from value-added services (comprising live video services, membership subscriptions and virtual gift services) and 1.5% from other services (comprising mobile marketing services, mobile games and other services). From time to time we have launched new services on our platform, explored new monetization models and broadened our revenue sources, and we expect to continue to do so. However, there is no assurance that any of our existing or new monetization models would be profitable or sustainable. If our strategic initiatives do not enhance our ability to monetize our existing services or enable us to develop new approaches to monetization, we may not be able to maintain or increase our revenues and profits or recover any associated costs. We may in the future introduce new services to further diversify our revenue streams, including services with which we have little or no prior development or operating experience. If these new or enhanced services fail to engage users, customers or platform partners, we may fail to attract or retain users or to generate sufficient revenues to justify our investments, and our business and operating results may suffer as a result. 16 Table of Contents If we fail to retain our existing users, if we cannot grow our user base, or if user engagement on our platform declines, our business and operating results may be materially and adversely affected. The size of our user base and the level of our user engagement are critical to our success. The user bases of our Momo and Tantan apps have decreased in the past. There is no guarantee that our user base will grow at a desirable rate or at all in the future. Growing our user base and increasing the overall level of user engagement on our social networking platform and in particular our value-added services are critical to our business. If our user growth rate remains negative, our success will become increasingly dependent on our ability to retain existing users and enhance user engagement on our platform. If our Momo and Tantan mobile applications are no longer one of the social networking tools that people frequently use, or if people do not perceive our services to be interesting or useful, we may not be able to attract users or increase the frequency or degree of their engagement. A number of factors could negatively affect user retention, growth and engagement, including if: • we are unable to attract new users to our platform or retain existing ones; • we fail to introduce new and improved services, or if we introduce services that are not favorably received by users; • we are unable to combat spam on or inappropriate or abusive use of our platform, which may lead to negative public perception of us and our brand; • technical or other problems prevent us from delivering our services in a rapid and reliable manner or otherwise adversely affect the user experience; • we suffer from negative publicity, fail to maintain our brand or if our reputation is damaged; • we fail to address user concerns related to privacy and communication, safety, security or other factors; • there are adverse changes in our services that are mandated by, or that we elect to make to address, legislation, regulations or government policies; and • the growth of the number of smartphone users in Chinese mainland or international stalls. If we are unable to grow our user base or enhance user engagement, our platform will become less attractive to our users, customers and platform partners, which would have a material and adverse impact on our business and operating results. We operate in a highly dynamic market, which makes it difficult to evaluate our future prospects. The market for social networking platforms is highly dynamic and may not develop as expected. Our users, customers and platform partners may not fully understand the value of our services, and potential new users, customers and platform partners may have difficulty distinguishing our services from those of our competitors. Convincing potential users, customers and platform partners of the value of our services is critical to the growth of our user base and the success of our business. We launched our Momo mobile application in August 2011, acquired our Tantan mobile application in May 2018 in the Chinese mainland market, and subsequently developed or acquired various applications in international markets. Our evolving monetization strategies make it difficult to assess our future prospects or forecast our future results. You should consider our business and prospects in light of the risks and challenges we encounter or may encounter in this developing and rapidly evolving market. These risks and challenges include our ability to, among other things: • expand our paying user base for the various services offered by our platforms, including value-added service and others; • develop and deploy diversified and distinguishable products, features and services for our users, customers and platform partners; • convince customers of the benefits of our marketing services compared to alternative forms of marketing, and to increase the efficiency of our mobile marketing solutions and expand our network of marketers; • develop or implement strategic initiatives to monetize our platforms; • develop beneficial relationship with key strategic partners, talented broadcasters and talent agencies for our live video service; • develop a reliable, scalable, secure, high-performance technology infrastructure that can efficiently handle increased usage; 17 Table of Contents • successfully compete with other companies, some of which have substantially greater resources and market power than us, that are currently in, or may in the future enter, our industry, or duplicate the features of our services; • attract, retain and motivate talented employees; and • defend ourselves against litigation, regulatory, intellectual property, privacy or other claims. If we fail to educate potential users, customers and platform partners about the value of our products and services, if the market for our platforms does not develop as we expect or if we fail to address the needs of this dynamic market, our business will be harmed. Failure to adequately address these or other risks and challenges could harm our business and cause our operating results to suffer. We generate substantial revenues from our value-added services. We may not be able to grow or generate positive returns from such services. In September 2015, Momo launched a virtual items-based value-added service model, which is live video services, whereby users can enjoy live performances and interact with the broadcasters for free, and have the option of purchasing in-show virtual items. In 2020, Tantan launched live video services and contributed to our live video services revenue. Though our live video service has always been a major source of our revenue, it has been declining in recent years. While we plan to continue to invest significantly in expanding our value-added service, we may not be able to continue to achieve our historical levels of profitability based on the virtual items-based revenue model. In addition, popular broadcasters or talent agencies may cease to use our service and we may be unable to attract new talents that can attract users or cause such users to increase the amount of time spent on our platform or the amount of money spent on in-show virtual items. Although we believe we have a large and diversified pool of talented broadcasters, talent agencies as well as paying users and have entered into multi-year exclusivity agreements with popular broadcasters and talent agencies, if a large number of our broadcasters, particularly popular broadcasters, were to leave our platform for competing platforms at the same time, if we are unable to negotiate acceptable business terms with popular broadcasters or talent agencies, or if a large number of our users decided to use live video services provided by our competitors, we might not be able to expand the user base of our live video services and achieve or maintain the level of revenues and profitability as we currently anticipate. Broadcasters provide live video services on our platform as an individual or as a member of a talent agency. The talent agencies recruit, train and retain the broadcasters. We are committed to providing strong support and resources to broadcasters and talent agencies to offer high-quality content. We are also committed to closely cooperating and developing long-term relationship with broadcasters and talent agencies. Under our current arrangements with our broadcasters and talent agencies, we share with them a portion of the revenues we derive from the sales of in-show virtual items in our live video service. Payments of revenue sharing to broadcasters and talent agencies for our live video services constitute a major portion of our cost of revenues. If we are required to share a larger portion of our revenues with the broadcasters and talent agencies for competition purpose, our results of operations may be adversely impacted. Besides, our other value-added offerings include premium membership subscription packages. These packages provide members with enhanced functions and exclusive privileges. Additionally, we offer virtual gift services that enable our users to purchase and send digital gifts across various platform features. We face risks associated with maintaining the competitiveness of our value-added services. Our continued success in this segment depends on our ability to consistently deliver innovative and appealing features that meet evolving user expectations. The competitive landscape presents particular challenges, as rivals may introduce more compelling offerings such as exclusive content, superior interaction features, or more sophisticated gamified rewards. Failure to adequately address these challenges could significantly impact our business. If we are unable to develop unique and attractive membership benefits, or if we fall behind in updating our services to match changing user preferences, we may experience difficulties in both acquiring new paying users and retaining our existing subscriber base. Such scenarios could adversely affect our revenue streams and overall financial performance. We may not be able to successfully maintain and increase the number of paying users for the various services we offer on our platform. Our future growth depends on our ability to convert our users into paying users of our services, including value-added service and other services and our ability to retain our existing paying users. However, we cannot assure you that we will be successful in any of the foregoing initiatives, nor can we assure you that we will be able to successfully compete with current and new competitors on attracting paying users. Our efforts to provide greater incentives for our users to pay for our various services may not succeed. Our paying users may discontinue their spending on our services because they may no longer serve our paying users’ needs, or simply because the interests and preferences of these users shift. If we cannot successfully maintain or increase the number of our paying users, our business, results of operations and prospects will be adversely affected. 18 Table of Contents Our business is dependent on the strength of our brands and market perception of our brand. In Chinese mainland, we market our services primarily under the brands “陌陌” or “Momo” and “探探” or “Tantan.” We provide services under the brands Soulchill, Amar, Yaahlan and others in international markets. Our business and financial performance are highly dependent on the strength and the market perception of our brands and services. A well-recognized brand is critical to increasing our user base and, in turn, facilitating our efforts to monetize our services and enhancing our attractiveness to customers. From time to time, we conduct marketing activities across various media to enhance our brands and to guide public perception of our brands and services. In order to create and maintain brand awareness and brand loyalty, to influence public perception and to retain existing and attract new mobile users, customers and platform partners, we must maintain a certain level of marketing expenditure. We cannot assure you, however, that these activities will be successful or that we will be able to achieve the brand promotion effect we expect. In addition, the general public may not understand the value of our platform, and there may be a misperception that Momo is used solely as a tool to randomly meet or date strangers. Convincing potential new users, customers and platform partners of the value of our services is critical to increasing the number of our users, customers and platform partners and to the success of our business. Our business is subject to complex and evolving Chinese and international laws and regulations regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and uncertain interpretation, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in claims, changes to our business practices, negative publicity, legal proceedings, increased cost of operations, declines in user base or engagement, or otherwise harm our business. Our business generates and processes a large quantity of data. We face risks inherent in handling and protecting large volume of data. In particular, we face a number of challenges relating to data from transactions and other activities on our platforms, including: • protecting the data in and hosted on our system, including against attacks on our system by outside parties or fraudulent behavior or improper use by our employees; • addressing concerns related to privacy and sharing, safety, security and other factors; and • complying with applicable laws, rules and regulations relating to the collection, use, storage, transfer, disclosure and security of personal information, including any requests from regulatory and government authorities relating to these data. In general, we expect that data security and data protection compliance will receive greater attention and focus from regulators, both in China and globally, as well as attract continued or greater public scrutiny and attention going forward, which could increase our compliance costs and subject us to heightened risks and challenges associated with data security and protection. If we are unable to manage these risks, we could receive negative publicity and/or become subject to penalties, including fines, suspension of business and revocation of required licenses, and our reputation and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. The Chinese mainland regulatory and enforcement regime with regard to data security and data protection is evolving and may be subject to different interpretations or rapid changes. Moreover, different Chinese mainland regulatory bodies, including the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, the CAC, the Ministry of Public Security, and the State Administration for Market Regulation, or the SAMR, have enforced data privacy and protections laws and regulations with varying standards and applications. For certain recent Chinese mainland regulatory activities in this area, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulations—Regulations Relating to Information Security” and “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulations—Regulations Relating to Privacy Protection.” 19 Table of Contents Many of the data-related legislations are relatively new and certain concepts thereunder remain subject to interpretation by the regulators. If any data that we possess belongs to data categories that are subject to heightened scrutiny, we may be required to adopt stricter measures for protection and management of such data. For example, in December 2021, the CAC, together with other authorities, jointly promulgated the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which became effective on February 15, 2022 and replaces its predecessor regulation. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, critical information infrastructure operators that procure internet products and services, and operators of network platforms conducting data processing activities must be subject to the cybersecurity review if their activities affect or may affect national security. The Cybersecurity Review Measures further stipulates that network platform operators that hold personal information of over one million users shall apply with the Cybersecurity Review Office for a cybersecurity review before any initial public offering at a foreign stock exchange. Given that the Cybersecurity Review Measures were recently promulgated, there are substantial uncertainties as to its interpretation, application, and enforcement. On September 24, 2024, the CAC promulgated the Administrative Regulations for Internet Data Security, or the Data Security Regulations, which became effective on January 1, 2025. The Data Security Regulations provides that data processors conduct data processing activities, which affects or may affect national security, must apply for cybersecurity review. There have been no further clarifications from the authorities as of the date of this annual report as to the standards for determining such activities that “affects or may affect national security.” The Data Security Regulations further stipulates that data processors that hold personal information of over one million users shall clearly define the person in charge of network data security and the network data security management body. Processors of important data, in the event of mergers, divisions, dissolutions, bankruptcies, or other circumstances that may affect the security of important data, shall take measures to ensure the security of network data and report the important data disposal plan, the name or designation and contact information of the receiving party, etc., to the relevant competent department at the provincial level or above. If the competent department is not clear, the report shall be made to the provincial level or above data security work coordination mechanism. In addition, the Cybersecurity Review Measures and the Data Security Regulations remain unclear on whether the requirements will be applicable to companies that are already listed in the United States, such as us, if we were to pursue another listing outside of the Chinese mainland. We cannot predict the impact of the Cybersecurity Review Measures and the Data Security Regulations, if any, at this stage, and we will closely monitor and assess any development in the rule-making process. If the Cybersecurity Review Measures and the Data Security Regulations mandate clearance of cybersecurity review and other specific actions to be taken by issuers like us, we face uncertainties as to whether these additional procedures can be completed by us timely, or at all, which may delay or disallow our future listings (should we decide to pursue them). If we are not able to comply with the cybersecurity and data privacy requirements in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to government enforcement actions and investigations, fines, penalties, suspension of our non-compliant operations, or removal of our apps from the relevant application stores, among other sanctions, which could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been involved in any formal investigations on cybersecurity review made by the CAC on such basis. We are constantly evaluating the potential impact of the PRC Cyber Security Law, the Data Security Law and other laws, regulations and policies relating to cybersecurity, privacy, data protection and information security on our current business practices. All these laws and regulations may result in additional expenses and obligations to us and any noncompliance with these laws and regulations may subject us to negative publicity, which could harm our reputation and negatively affect the trading price of the ADSs. We expect that these areas will receive greater public scrutiny and attention from regulators and more frequent and rigid investigation or review by regulators, which may increase our compliance costs and subject us to heightened risks and challenges. We place a strong emphasis on data security. To achieve the objective, we have established a data privacy and cybersecurity team to assist the management with respect to privacy and data usage matters, including to oversee compliance with the applicable privacy laws and regulations, periodic assessment of data privacy ethics as well as any related policies with respect to risk assessment and risk management, among other things. We have adopted a series of internal policies on data collection, processing and usage. We conduct regular self-inspections with regard to data privacy and cybersecurity to ensure compliance with applicable laws and regulations. We believe that we are currently in compliance with applicable laws, regulations and policies overseen by the CAC relating to cybersecurity, privacy, data protection and information security. In general, compliance with the existing PRC laws and regulations, as well as additional laws and regulations that Chinese mainland regulatory bodies may enact in the future, related to data security and personal information protection, may be costly and result in additional expenses to us, and subject us to negative publicity, which could harm our reputation and business operations. There are also uncertainties with respect to how such laws and regulations will be implemented and interpreted in practice. 20 Table of Contents Our business may be subject to laws and regulations regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection in jurisdictions other than China. Any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could have a material and adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations. We face risks inherent in handling and protecting data and are subject to various regulatory requirements relating to the security and privacy of data. See “—Our business is subject to complex and evolving PRC laws and regulations regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and uncertain interpretation, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in claims, changes to our business practices, negative publicity, legal proceedings, increased cost of operations, declines in user base or engagement, or otherwise harm our business” for details. We may also be subject to overseas cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection laws and regulations. Our practices may become inconsistent with new laws or regulations concerning data protection, or the interpretation and application of existing consumer and data protection laws or regulations, which is often uncertain and in flux. If so, in addition to the possibility of fines, this could result in an order requiring that we change our practices, which could have an adverse effect on our business and operating results. For example, the European Union General Data Protection Regulation, or the GDPR, which came into effect on May 25, 2018, includes operational requirements for companies that receive or process personal data of residents of the European Economic Area. The GDPR establishes new requirements applicable to the processing of personal data, affords new data protection rights to individuals and imposes penalties for serious data breaches. Individuals also have a right to compensation under the GDPR for financial or non-financial losses. We operate the Happn platform, a European dating app we acquired in 2025, and are subject to the GDPR in respect of such operations. In addition, in the ordinary course of our business operations, in the event that residents of the European Economic Area access our platform and input protected information, we may become subject to provisions of the GDPR. Additionally, California enacted legislation that has been dubbed the first “GDPR-like” law in the U.S. Known as the California Consumer Privacy Act, or CCPA, it creates new individual privacy rights for consumers (as that word is broadly defined in the law) and places increased privacy and security obligations on entities handling personal data of consumers or households. The CCPA, which went into effect on January 1, 2020, requires covered companies to provide new disclosures to California consumers, and provides such consumers new ways to opt-out of certain sales of personal information. The CCPA provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that we expect to increase data breach litigation. With some other conditions, the CCPA requires companies “doing business in California” to follow the CCPA. However, the phrase “doing business in California” is not defined in the CCPA. With reference to the California tax code, the phrase “doing business in California” is described as “actively engaging in any transaction for the purpose of financial or pecuniary gain or profit.” We are currently not actively doing business in California, and thus, there is still uncertainty regarding whether the CCPA will apply to us. If further interpretations or court decisions render us “doing business in California,” the CCPA will apply to us and it may increase our compliance costs and potential liability. Some observers have noted that the CCPA could mark the beginning of a trend toward more stringent privacy legislation in the U.S., which could increase our potential liability and adversely affect our business. Intensified government regulations, rules or guidelines of the internet industry in Chinese mainland could restrict our ability to maintain or increase the level of user traffic to, and user willingness to spend on, our platform as well as our ability to tap into other market opportunities, and negatively impact our businesses, results of operations, or financial condition. The Chinese mainland government has promulgated, in recent years, intensified regulations, rules, or guidelines on various aspects of the internet industry in Chinese mainland. For example, in August 2018, the National Office of Anti-Pornography and Illegal Publication, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (previously known as the Ministry of Culture), the National Radio and Television Administration and the CAC jointly issued the Notice on Strengthen the Management of Online Live Broadcast Service, which required the real-name registration system for users to be put in place by online live broadcast service providers. On November 12, 2020, the National Radio and Television Administration promulgated the Circular on Strengthening the Administration of the Online Show Live Broadcast and Online E-commerce Live Broadcast, or Notice 78, which sets forth registration requirements for platforms providing online show live broadcast or online e-commerce live broadcast to have their information and business operations registered by November 30, 2020. Notice 78 also sets forth requirements for certain online live broadcast businesses with respect to real-name registration, limits on user spending on virtual gifting, restrictions on minors on virtual gifting, online live broadcast review personnel requirements, content tagging requirements, and other requirements. For example, Notice 78 requires online live broadcast platforms to set a limit to the number of virtual gifts a user can send per day and per month, as well as the amount that can be gifted at any one time. However, there is currently no clear guidance as to what limits on virtual gifting spending will be imposed by the National Radio and Television Administration pursuant to Notice 78 and it is unclear how and to what degree any such limits would be imposed on different platforms. 21 Table of Contents Furthermore, on February 9, 2021, the National Office of Anti-Pornography and Illegal Publication, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the National Radio and Television Administration, the CAC and the SAMR jointly issued the Guiding Opinions on Strengthening the Administration of Online Live Broadcast, or the Opinions No. 3, which strengthens the positive guidance and management of the online broadcast industry, including standardizing the behavior of virtual gifting and promoting the classification of the online live broadcast accounts. For example, the Opinions No. 3 requires online live broadcast platforms to reasonably limit the maximum amount of a single virtual gift and a single virtual gifting per time to remind the users whose daily consumption amount has triggered the corresponding threshold, and to set necessary cooling off period and deferred payment period. On October 26, 2025, the CAC promulgated the Notice by the Secretariat of the Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission Regarding Launching the “Clear and Bright” Special Campaign to Address Disorderliness in Tips in Livestreaming, which requires websites and platforms shall be supervised in further refining review criteria, improving the rules governing livestreaming tips, and establishing dedicated management systems. Controls over tip caps, spending reminders, and profit-related privileges shall be strengthened. The use of functions such as rankings, group livestreaming, and PK sessions, as well as relevant interactive mechanisms, shall be regulated. Complaint-handling and refund mechanisms for tips from minors shall be further improved. Notably, two key regulatory updates were issued: on February 1, 2026, the Measures for the Supervision and Administration of Live Streaming E-Commerce (the “Live-Streaming E-Commerce Measures”) took effect, codifying real-name registration, tax compliance, and operational accountability; and on April 13, 2026, the CAC released a new notice formalizing the 2025 “Clear and Bright” campaign’s requirements, mandating user-imposed gifting limits, banning gifting-based rankings and inducements, and restricting minors’ gifting. We are still in the process of obtaining further guidance from regulatory authorities and evaluating the applicability and effect of the various requirements under Notice 78 and the Opinions No. 3 and the newly issued 2026 regulatory rules on our business and results of operations. Any limits on user spending on virtual gifting ultimately imposed may negatively impact our revenues derived from virtual gifting and our results of operations. Any further rulemaking under Notice 78, the Opinions No. 3 and the newly issued 2026 regulatory rules, or other intensified regulation with respect to online live broadcast may increase our compliance burden, and may have an adverse impact on our business and results of operations. On March 25, 2022, the CAC, the State Taxation Administration and the SAMR jointly issued the Opinions on Further Rectifying the Profit-making Online Live Broadcast to Promote the Healthy Development of the Industry, which enhances the online live broadcast accounts registration management, strengthens tax collection and punishes tax evasions and frauds in connection with online live broadcast. On May 7, 2022, the Central Commission for Guiding the Cultural and Ethical Progress of the Communist Party of China, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the National Radio and Television Administration and the CAC promulgated the Opinions on Regulating Virtual Gifting during Online Live Broadcasting and Strengthening the Protection of Minors. According to these opinions, online live broadcasting platforms shall, among others (1) prohibit minors from virtual gifting, and strength the implementation of real-name registration; (2) not provide online live broadcaster account registration service to minors under 16 and shall obtain the consent from guardians before allowing minors between 16 and 18 to register as a broadcaster on their platforms; (3) continue to upgrade the youth mode of the platform and establish an exclusive customer service team for minors to prioritize the settlement of complaints and disputes related to minors; (4) strengthen the administration on key functions of the platform and prohibit virtual gifting amount from being the sole criteria for the ranking of broadcasters or the criteria for the ranking of users; and (5) suspend all services under youth mode after 10:00 p.m. every day to ensure the rest time of minors. The National Radio and Television Administration and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism jointly issued the Code of Conduct for Online Live Broadcasters on June 8, 2022, to regulate the conduct of broadcasters who provide online live broadcasting programs and audio/video program services through the Internet, including those who live broadcast on the online platforms, conduct real-time interactions with users, and perform through pre-uploaded audio or video programs. For live broadcasting content that requires a high level of professionalism (such as medical and healthcare, finance, law, education), the broadcasters should obtain corresponding qualifications and report to the live broadcasting platform, and the live broadcasting platform shall review and record the qualifications of the broadcasters. 22 Table of Contents In addition, new laws and regulations, rules or guidelines may be adopted in Chinese mainland from time to time to address new issues that come to the authorities’ attention. Some new laws, regulations, rules, or guidelines have or may in the future put additional restrictions on our users, broadcasters, content, product or service offerings, and may negatively impact our businesses, results of operations, or financial condition. For example, we are subject to a variety of regulatory restrictions concerning the age limit for broadcasters, as well as restrictions on our products’ features. The existing and future regulations rules and guidelines that could affect us are beyond our control, and their potential impact on us is difficult to predict. We may incur substantial financial, operational and managerial costs in response to and in anticipation to the regulatory and policy risks, and we may not be able to effectively predict, estimate or manage those risks in a timely and cost-efficient manner. Furthermore, we may not timely obtain or maintain all the required licenses or approvals or to satisfy all the requirements posed by the authorities in the future. We also cannot assure you that we will be able to obtain the required licenses or approvals or to satisfy all the requirements posed by the authorities if we plan to expand into other internet businesses. If we fail to timely obtain or maintain any of the required licenses or approvals, we may be subject to various penalties, which may disrupt our business operations or derail our business strategy, and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Content posted or displayed on our social networking platform, including the live video shows hosted by us or our users, has been and may again be found objectionable by Chinese mainland regulatory authorities and may subject us to penalties and other serious consequences. The Chinese mainland government has adopted regulations governing internet and wireless access and the distribution of information over the internet and wireless telecommunications networks. Under these regulations, internet content providers and internet publishers are prohibited from posting or displaying over the internet or wireless networks content that, among other things, violates the principle of the PRC Constitution, laws and regulations, impairs the national dignity of Chinese mainland or the public interest, or is obscene, superstitious, fraudulent or defamatory. Furthermore, internet content providers are also prohibited from displaying content that may be deemed by the government authorities as instigating ethnical hatred and harming ethnical unity, harming the national religious policy, “socially destabilizing” or leaking “state secrets” of Chinese mainland. Failure to comply with these requirements may result in the revocation of licenses to provide internet content or other licenses, the closure of the concerned platforms and reputational harm. The operator may also be held liable for any censored information displayed on or linked to their platform. On December 15, 2019, the CAC released the Provisions on Ecological Governance of Network Information Content, which came into force on March 1, 2020. The Provisions on Ecological Governance of Network Information Content is one of the latest regulations governing the distribution of information over the internet and wireless telecommunications networks in which it classifies the network information into three categories, namely the “encouraged information,” the “illegal information” and the “undesirable information.” While illegal information is strictly prohibited from distribution, the internet content providers are required to take measures to prevent and resist the production and distribution of undesirable information. The Provisions on Ecological Governance of Network Information Content further clarifies the duties owed by the internet content providers in preventing the display of content in violation of it, such as obligations to improve the systems for users registration, accounts management, information release review, follow-up comments review, websites ecological management, real-time inspection, emergency response and disposal mechanism for cyber rumor and black industry chain information. In January 2026, eight government authorities including the CAC jointly issued the Measures for the Classification of Network Information that May Affect the Physical and Mental Health of Minors, which took into effect on March 1, 2026. The Administrative Provisions on Comment Threading Services on the Internet were amended by the CAC on November 16, 2022 and became effective on December 15, 2022. The Administrative Provisions on Comment Threading Services on the Internet require that the comment threading service providers shall (1) verify the real identity information of the registered users under the principle of “using real name at back end and using alias or real name voluntarily at front end” and not provide comment threading services to users who have not verified their real identity information or fraudulently use the identity information of organizations or others; (2) establish and improve the system for the protection of the personal information of users, follow the principles of “legitimacy, appropriateness, necessity and good faith” in the processing of the personal information of users, disclose the rules for processing personal information, inform the users of the purpose and method of processing, type of personal information to be processed, storage period and other matters, and obtain individuals’ consents according to the law, unless otherwise provided for by laws or administrative regulations; (3) establish the system of “censorship before release” for comment threading services provided for news information; (4) provide the corresponding static version of information content at the same time on the same platform and page if the comment threading services are provided by way of bullet screens; (5) establish and improve a system of review and management of comments posted, real-time inspection, emergency response and reporting acceptance and other information security management systems, timely identify and dispose of illegal and negative information, and report to the cyberspace administration; (6) innovate the management methods for comments posted, research and develop information security management technology for comments posted and improve the ability to dispose of illegal and negative information, timely identify risks such as security defects and loopholes in the comment threading services, take remedial measures and report the same to the cyberspace administrations; (7) be staffed with a review editorial team that adapts to the scale of service, strengthen the review trainings and improve the professionalism of review editors; (8) cooperate with the cyberspace administrations in conducting supervision and inspection in accordance with the law and provide necessary technical and data support and assistance. 23 Table of Contents We have designed and implemented procedures to monitor content on our social networking platform, including the live video shows hosted by us or our users, in order to comply with the laws and regulations. However, it may not be possible to determine in all cases the types of content that could result in our liability as a distributor of such content and, if any of the content posted or displayed on our social networking platform is deemed by the Chinese mainland government to violate any content restrictions, we would not be able to continue to display such content and could become subject to penalties, including confiscation of income, fines, suspension of business and revocation of required licenses, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Regulatory authorities may conduct various reviews and inspections on our business operations, especially those related to content distribution, from time to time. If any non-compliance incidents in our business operations are identified, we may be required to take certain rectification measures in accordance with applicable laws and regulations, or we may be subject to other regulatory actions such as administrative penalties. We have been subject to administrative measures for the content posted or displayed on our platforms, which has negatively affected our business operations and financial results. We cannot guarantee that such inspections and administrative measures will not happen again in the future, the occurrence of which will adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may also be subject to potential liability for any unlawful actions by our users on our platform. It may be difficult to determine the type of content or actions that may result in liability to us and, if we are found to be liable, we may be prevented from operating our business in Chinese mainland. Moreover, staying in compliance with the regulatory requirements may result in limitation to our scope of service, reduction in user engagement or loss of users, diversion of our management team’s attention and increased operational costs and expenses. The costs of compliance with these regulations may continue to increase as a result of more content being made available by an increasing number of users of our social networking platform, which may adversely affect our results of operations. Although we have adopted internal procedures to monitor content and to remove offending content once we become aware of any potential or alleged violation, we may not be able to identify all the content that may violate the laws and regulations or third- party intellectual property rights. Even if we manage to identify and remove offensive content, we may still be held liable. We have limited experience in international markets. If we fail to meet the challenges presented by our international operations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. Our revenue from markets outside the Chinese mainland has become increasingly material to our overall business, representing 6.7%, 11.1% and 19.3% of our total net revenues for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. For example, our Soulchill currently has footprint in overseas markets, such as in Middle East and North Africa. In 2025 we completed the acquisition of the European dating app Happn. Originating in Paris, France, Happn leverages location-based services to facilitate seamless online-to-offline dating experiences. However, we have limited experience in international markets and we expect to enter into and expand our operations into international markets. Unlike operating within a single regulatory framework, our international operations require us to comply with a broad range of laws, regulations, business practices, and cultural norms that vary significantly from country to country and region to region. Our international operations may expose us to a number of risks, including: • political and geopolitical risks, including political instability, changes in government policies, territorial or trade disputes, war, terrorism, sanctions, boycotts, embargoes, and other actions by local governments or the international community that may restrict our access to a market, limit our operations, or damage our reputation; • lack of acceptance of our product and service offerings, and challenges of localizing our offerings to appeal to local tastes; 24 Table of Contents • compliance with applicable laws and regulations in multiple jurisdictions, including, but not limited to, data, internet content provider licenses and other applicable licenses or governmental authorizations; • challenges in identifying appropriate local business partners and establishing and maintaining good working relationships with them. Our business partners primarily include popular talents and their agencies, third parties that promote our platform and applications and third parties that provide us technology support; • challenges in commercializing our platforms in international markets without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the intellectual property rights of third parties; • challenges in formulating effective marketing strategies targeting users from various jurisdictions and cultures, who have a diverse range of preferences and demands; • challenges in replicating or adapting our company policies and procedures to operating environments that are different from each other, including technology infrastructure; • challenges in managing compliance with local labor regulations and risks associated with labor dispute across different jurisdictions; • fluctuations in currency exchange rates; • increased competition with local players in different markets and sub-markets; • boycotts and embargoes that may be imposed by the international community on countries in which we offer our mobile applications; • exposure to different tax jurisdictions that may subject us to greater fluctuations in our effective tax rate and assessments in multiple jurisdictions on various tax-related assertions, including transfer pricing adjustments and permanent establishment; • compliance with privacy laws and data security laws, including heightened restrictions and barriers on the transfer of data between different jurisdictions; • regulatory regime and business practices that essentially favor domestic companies, such as tariffs, protectionism, subsidies and restrictions on foreign ownership, which could, among other things, give rise to competitive disadvantage for us and hinder our ability to execute our business strategies; • actions by local governments or others to restrict access to our products and services or to cause us to discontinue our operations in a particular market, regardless of whether these actions are taken for political, security or other reasons. For example, in February 2026, a Turkish court, acting upon a request from the local regulatory authority under applicable Turkish internet regulations, approved an administrative measure requiring application stores in Turkey to remove access to a broad list of mobile applications operated by various providers, which included Soulchill and certain of our other overseas applications. We are currently pursuing available legal and administrative channels in Turkey to seek reinstatement; • other actions or interventions by local governments, including various forms of exchange controls, expropriation of assets and cancellation of contractual rights; and • increased costs associated with doing business in multiple jurisdictions. The removal of these applications has had, and may continue to have, an adverse effect on our international business. In addition, similar actions may occur in other jurisdictions or with respect to other applications in the future, and any such actions could adversely affect our international user base, revenues and growth prospects. Our international expansion plans will place increased demands on our operational, managerial and administrative resources. For example, we may face competition from major, established competitors in markets where we have limited experience. These competitors usually have more experience and resources for their business operations in those markets. In addition, the real estate, employment and labor, transportation and logistics, regulatory, and other operating requirements in these markets differ significantly from those in China. In particular, we face regulatory uncertainties and may incur substantial compliance costs when we enter into a new overseas market. Regulations in different overseas markets could vary significantly. Being compliant with laws and regulations in one jurisdiction does not necessarily mean our business model/business practice would comply with laws and regulations in another jurisdiction and we may need to make adjustments to our business model/business practice accordingly to comply with local laws. Given the complexity, uncertainties and frequent changes in these laws, rules, regulations, policies and measures in overseas markets, including changes in their interpretation and implementation, our business activities and growth may be adversely affected if we do not respond to the changes in a timely manner or fail to fully comply with the applicable laws, rules, regulations, policies and measures, including as a result of ambiguities in them. Non-compliance may subject us to sanctions by regulatory authorities, to monetary penalties, or to restrictions on our activities or revocation of our licenses, which may result in a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations in the relevant overseas market. We also have to closely monitor changes in local laws and complete all necessary procedures and filings accordingly. Furthermore, we may also from time to time encounter legal disputes with various parties in overseas markets in our ordinary course of business operations. 25 Table of Contents Our international expansion also brings potentially additional tax liability. In December 2021, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development published Pillar Two model rules, enabling jurisdictions to enact domestic tax laws to implement a globally agreed common approach. These rules apply to multinational groups with annual revenue of EUR750 million or more in at least two of the four fiscal years preceding the tested fiscal year. We may be subject to a top-up tax on profits in jurisdictions where the effective tax rate falls below a minimum of 15% under the Pillar Two model rules. Various tax jurisdictions have either enacted legislation to adopt certain components of the Pillar Two model or announced their plans to enact such legislation in future years. We will continue to evaluate the impact of such legislative initiatives in the tax jurisdictions in which we operate. There are uncertainties regarding the rules and their implementation, which may affect our financial results. There is no assurance we will be able to manage these risks and challenges as we continue to grow our international businesses. Failure to manage these risks and challenges could negatively affect our ability to expand our international and cross-border businesses and operations as well as materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. The mobile social and dating industry is an evolving and competitive market, with low switching costs and a consistent stream of new products and entrants, and innovation by our competitors may disrupt our business. The mobile social and dating industry in Chinese mainland and international markets is evolving and competitive, and has experienced a consistent stream of new products and market entrants within recent years. Our competitors may hold stronger competitive positions in certain geographical regions or with certain user demographics that we currently serve or may serve in the future. These advantages could enable these competitors to offer features and services that are more appealing to current users and potential users than our features and services or to respond more quickly and/or cost-effectively than us to new or changing opportunities. In addition, within the mobile social and dating industry generally, costs for consumers to switch between products and apps are low, and consumers have demonstrated a propensity to try new approaches to connecting with people. As a result, new products, entrants and business models are likely to continue to emerge. It is possible that a new app could gain rapid scale at the expense of existing brands through harnessing a new technology or distribution channel, creating a new approach to connecting people or some other means. If we are not able to compete effectively against our current or future competitors and other apps, products and services that may emerge, the size and level of engagement of our user base may decrease, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may be unsuccessful in monetizing Tantan’s social and dating services. We may be unable to successfully monetize Tantan’s social and dating services due to, among other reasons, Tantan’s users ceasing to use mobile technology for dating and socializing, Tantan’s users opting to forgo paid services on the app, perceived or actual privacy concerns, the introduction of new regulations on the use and monetization of user data, any interruption of Tantan’s business operations from the inspection and administrative measures taken by the governmental authorities, and the introduction of competition offering services at lower cost or additional or different features. If we are unable to successfully monetize Tantan’s business, our business, reputation, results of operations and financial condition could be materially adversely affected. Tantan’s growth and profitability rely, in part, on its ability to attract and retain users, which involves considerable expenditure. Any failure in these efforts could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Tantan commenced monetization of its business in July 2017, and had not been profitable until 2023. In order to grow its business and remain profitable, Tantan will need to continue to attract and retain users for Tantan’s app, which will involve considerable expenditures. 26 Table of Contents Tantan’s marketing expenditures consist primarily of investments in paid marketing channels to acquire more users and drive traffic to the app. To continue to reach potential users and grow the Tantan business, we must identify and invest in evolving marketing channels. The opportunities in and effectiveness of new marketing channels are relatively unproven, making it difficult to assess returns on investment associated with such channels, and there can be no assurance that we will be able to continue to appropriately manage and fine-tune our marketing efforts in response to these and other trends in the industry. Any failure to do so could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. Negative publicity may harm our brand and reputation and have a material adverse effect on our business and operating results. Negative publicity involving us, our users, our management, our social networking platform or our business model may tarnish our reputation and materially and adversely harm our brand and our business. We cannot assure you that we will be able to defuse negative publicity about us, our management and/or our services to the satisfaction of our investors, users, customers and platform partners. There has been negative publicity about our company and the misuse of our services, which has adversely affected our brand, public image and reputation. Such negative publicity, especially when it is directly addressed against us, may also require us to engage in defensive media campaigns. This may cause us to increase our marketing expenses and divert our management’s attention and may adversely impact our business and results of operations. Any legal action, regardless of its merits, could be time consuming and could divert the attention of our management away from our business and a failure of any legal action may bring negative impact on our reputation and cause a loss of our brand equity, which would reduce the use of our platform and demand for our services. Moreover, any attempts to rebuild our reputation and restore the value of our brand may be costly and time consuming, and such efforts may not ultimately be successful. User misconduct and misuse of our platform may adversely impact our brand image, and we may be held liable for information or content displayed on, retrieved from or linked to our platform, which may materially and adversely affect our business and operating results. Our platform allows mobile users to freely contact and communicate with people nearby, and our live video services allows users to host and view live shows. Because we do not have full control over how and what users will use our platform to communicate, our platform may be misused by individuals or groups of individuals to engage in immoral, disrespectful, fraudulent or illegal activities. For example, on a daily basis we detect spam accounts through which illegal or inappropriate content is posted and illegal or fraudulent activities are conducted. Media reports and internet forums have covered some of these incidents, which have in some cases generated negative publicity about our brand and platform. We have implemented control procedures to detect and block illegal or inappropriate content and illegal or fraudulent activities conducted through the misuse of our platform, but such procedures may not prevent all such content from being broadcasted or posted or activities from being carried out. Moreover, as we have limited control over real-time and offline behaviors of our users, to the extent such behaviors are associated with our platform, our ability to protect our brand image and reputation may be limited. Our business and the public perception of our brand may be materially and adversely affected by misuse of our platform. In addition, if any of our users suffers or alleges to have suffered physical, financial or emotional harm following contact initiated on our platform, we may face civil lawsuits or other liabilities initiated by the affected user, or governmental or regulatory actions against us. For example, we are or may continue to be involved in disputes relating to refunding to users’ spouses all or part of funds consumed by users for purchase of in-show virtual items in our mobile applications based on claim of unauthorized disposition of commonwealth property. We believe such type of claims is groundless and lacks merit, because from a contractual perspective, users purchase and send virtual gifts to broadcasters in exchange for the live performance delivered to them or for the interaction between them and the broadcasters, and it is entirely up to the users to purchase in-show virtual items. We therefore will defend against such claims vigorously. In response to allegations of illegal or inappropriate activities conducted through our platform or any negative media coverage about us, Chinese mainland government authorities may hold us liable for non-compliance with PRC laws and regulations concerning the dissemination of information on the internet and subject us to administrative penalties or other sanctions, such as requiring us to restrict or discontinue some of the features and services provided on our mobile application. Therefore, our business may be subject to investigations or subsequent penalties if content generated by our users are deemed to be illegal or inappropriate under PRC laws and regulations. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—If we fail to obtain and maintain the requisite licenses and approvals required under the complex regulatory environment applicable to our businesses in Chinese mainland, or if we are required to take compliance actions that are time- consuming or costly, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.” As a result, our business may suffer, our user base, revenues and profitability may be materially and adversely affected, and the price of our ADSs may decline. 27 Table of Contents The market in which we operate is fragmented and highly competitive. If we are unable to compete effectively for users or user engagement, our business and operating results may be materially and adversely affected. As a social networking platform that provides multiple services, including value-added service, mobile marketing services and other services, we are subject to intense competition from providers of similar services, as well as potential new types of online services. Our competitors may have substantially more cash, traffic, technical, broadcasters, business networks and other resources, as well as broader product or service offerings and can leverage their relationships based on other products or services to gain a larger share of marketing budgets. We may be unable to compete successfully against these competitors or new market entrants, which may adversely affect our business and financial performance. We believe that our ability to compete effectively depends upon many factors both within and beyond our control, including: • the popularity, usefulness, ease of use, performance and reliability of our services compared to those of our competitors, and the research and development abilities of us and our competitors; • changes mandated by, or that we elect to make to address, legislation, regulations or government policies, some of which may have a disproportionate effect on us; • acquisitions or consolidation within our industry, which may result in more formidable competitors; • our ability to monetize our services; • our ability to attract, retain, and motivate talented employees; • our ability to manage and grow our operations cost-effectively; and • our reputation and brand strength relative to our competitors. If we fail to keep up with technological developments and evolving user expectations, we may fail to maintain or attract users, customers or platform partners, and our business and operating results may be materially and adversely affected. We operate in a market characterized by rapidly changing technologies, evolving industry standards, new product and service announcements, new generations of product enhancements and changing user expectations. Accordingly, our performance and the ability to further monetize the services on our platform will depend on our ability to adapt to these rapidly changing technologies and industry standards, and our ability to continually innovate in response to both evolving demands of the marketplace and competitive services. There may be occasions when we may not be as responsive as our competitors in adapting our services to changing industry standards and the needs of our users. Historically, new features may be introduced by one player in the industry, and if they are perceived as attractive to users, they are often quickly copied and improved upon by others. Introducing new technologies into our systems involves numerous technical challenges, substantial amounts of capital and personnel resources and often takes many months to complete. For example, the market for mobile devices in Chinese mainland is highly fragmented, and the lower resolution, functionality, operating system compatibility and memory currently associated with the kaleidoscopic models of mobile devices in the Chinese marketplace may make the use of our services through these devices more difficult and impair the user experience. We intend to continue to devote resources to the development of additional technologies and services. We may not be able to effectively integrate new technologies on a timely basis or at all, which may decrease user satisfaction with our services. Such technologies, even if integrated, may not function as expected or may be unable to attract and retain a substantial number of mobile device users to use our Momo mobile app. We also may not be able to protect such technology from being copied by our competitors. Our failure to keep pace with rapid technological changes may cause us to fail to retain or attract users or generate revenues, and could have a material and adverse effect on our business and operating results. 28 Table of Contents If we fail to effectively control our costs and expenses, our business and operating results could be harmed. Given the rapidly evolving market in which we compete, we may encounter difficulties as we establish and manage our operations, product development, sales and marketing, and general and administrative capabilities. We face significant competition for talented employees from other high-growth companies, which include both publicly traded and privately held companies, and we may not be able to hire new talents quickly enough to meet our needs and support our operations. If we fail to effectively manage our hiring needs and successfully integrate our new hires, our efficiency and ability to meet our forecasts and our employee morale, productivity and retention could suffer, and our business and operating results could be adversely affected. Due to the ever-evolving market that we operate in, our costs and expenses may increase in the future as we seek to broaden our user base and increase user engagement, and develop and implement new features and services. We may also have difficulties in maintaining reliable service levels for our users and customers, develop and improve our operational, financial, legal and management controls, and enhance our reporting systems and procedures. If we are unable to generate adequate revenues and to manage our expenses, we may again incur significant losses in the future and may not be able to regain profitability. Our expenses may grow faster than our revenues, and our expenses may be greater than we anticipate. Managing our business in the evolving and developing market will require significant expenditures and the allocation of valuable management resources. If we fail to achieve the necessary level of efficiency in our organization as we adapt, our business, operating results and financial condition could be harmed. Techniques employed by short sellers may drive down the market price of our listed securities. Short selling is the practice of selling securities that a seller does not own but rather has borrowed from a third party with the intention of buying identical securities back at a later date to return to the lender. Short sellers hope to profit from a decline in the value of the securities between the sale of the borrowed securities and the purchase of the replacement shares, as short sellers expect to pay less in that purchase than they received in the sale. As it is in short sellers’ interest for the price of the security to decline, many short sellers publish, or arrange for the publication of, negative opinions and allegations regarding the issuer and its business prospects in order to create negative market momentum and generate profits for themselves after selling a security short. These short attacks have, in the past, led to selling of shares in the market. Public companies listed in the United States that have substantially all of their operations in Chinese mainland have been the subject of short selling. Much of the scrutiny and negative publicity has centered on allegations of a lack of effective internal control over financial reporting resulting in financial and accounting irregularities and mistakes, inadequate corporate governance policies or a lack of adherence thereto and, in many cases, allegations of fraud. As a result, many of these companies are now conducting internal and external investigations into the allegations and, in the interim, are subject to shareholder lawsuits and/or SEC enforcement actions. Any allegations or reports published by short sellers against our company may be followed by periods of instability in the market price of our ADSs and negative publicity. Regardless of whether such allegations and information in such reports are proven to be true or untrue, we may have to expend a significant amount of resources to investigate such allegations and/or defend ourselves against negative information in such reports, including in connection with class actions or regulatory enforcement actions derivative of such allegations. While we would strongly defend against any such short seller attacks, we may be constrained in the manner in which we can proceed against the short sellers by principles of freedom of speech, applicable state law or issues of commercial confidentiality. Such a situation could be costly and time-consuming, and could divert management’s attention from the day-to-day operations of our company. Even if such allegations are ultimately proven to be groundless, allegations against us could severely impact the market price of our securities and our business operations. The continuing and collaborative efforts of our senior management and key employees are crucial to our success, and our business may be harmed if we were to lose their services. We depend on the continued contributions of our senior management, especially the executive officers listed in “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees—A. Directors and Senior Management” section of this annual report, and other key employees, many of whom are difficult to replace. The loss of the services of any of our executive officers or other key employees could materially harm our business. Competition for qualified talents in Chinese mainland is intense. Our future success is dependent on our ability to attract a significant number of qualified employees and retain existing key employees. If we are unable to do so, our business and growth may be materially and adversely affected and the trading price of our ADSs could suffer. Our need to significantly increase the number of our qualified employees and retain key employees may cause us to materially increase compensation-related costs, including stock-based compensation. 29 Table of Contents We may not be able to adequately protect our intellectual property, which could cause us to be less competitive and third-party infringements of our intellectual property rights may adversely affect our business. We rely on a combination of patent, copyright, trademark and trade secret laws and restrictions on disclosure to protect our intellectual property rights. See also “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview.” Despite our efforts to protect our proprietary rights, third parties may attempt to copy or otherwise obtain and use our intellectual property or seek court declarations that they do not infringe upon our intellectual property rights. Monitoring unauthorized use of our intellectual property is difficult and costly, and we cannot be certain that the steps we have taken will prevent misappropriation of our intellectual property. From time to time, we may have to resort to litigation to enforce our intellectual property rights, which could result in substantial costs and diversion of our resources. The legal regime relating to the recognition and enforcement of intellectual property rights in Chinese mainland is limited, and does not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the United States. Legal proceedings to enforce our intellectual property in Chinese mainland may progress slowly, during which time infringement may continue largely unimpeded. We have been and may be subject to intellectual property infringement claims or other allegations by third parties for information or content displayed on, retrieved from or linked to our platform, or distributed to our users, which may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and prospects. We have been, and may in the future be, subject to intellectual property infringement claims or other allegations by third parties for services we provide or for information or content displayed on, retrieved from or linked to our platform, or distributed to our users, which may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and prospects. Companies in the internet, technology and media industries are frequently involved in litigation based on allegations of infringement of intellectual property rights, unfair competition, invasion of privacy, defamation and other violations of other parties’ rights. The validity, enforceability and scope of protection of intellectual property rights in internet-related industries, including in Chinese mainland, are uncertain and still evolving. We have faced, from time to time, and expect to face in the future, allegations that we have infringed the trademarks, copyrights, patents and other intellectual property rights of third parties, including our competitors, or allegations that we are involved in unfair trade practices. See “Item 8. Financial Information—A. Consolidated Statements and Other Financial Information—Legal Proceedings.” As we face increasing competition and as litigation becomes a more common method for resolving commercial disputes in Chinese mainland, we face a higher risk of being the subject of intellectual property infringement claims. We allow users to upload text, graphics, audio, video and other content to our platform and download, share, link to and access content on our platform. We have procedures designed to reduce the likelihood that content might be used without proper licenses or third- party consents. However, these procedures may not be effective in preventing the unauthorized posting of copyrighted content. Therefore, we may face liability for copyright or trademark infringement, defamation, unfair competition, libel, negligence, and other claims based on the nature and content of the materials that are delivered, shared or otherwise accessed through our platform. Defending intellectual property litigation is costly and can impose a significant burden on our management and employees, and there can be no assurances that favorable final outcomes will be obtained in all cases. Such claims, even if they do not result in liability, may harm our reputation. Any resulting liability or expenses, or changes required to our platform to reduce the risk of future liability, may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and prospects. User base and engagement depend upon effective interoperation with mobile operating systems, networks, mobile devices and standards that we do not control. We make our services available across a variety of mobile operating systems and devices. We are dependent on the interoperability of our services with popular mobile devices and mobile operating systems that we do not control, such as Android, iOS and Windows. Any changes in such mobile operating systems or devices that degrade the functionality of our services or give preferential treatment to competitive services could adversely affect usage of our services. Further, if the number of platforms for which we develop our services increases, which is typically seen in a dynamic and fragmented mobile services market such as Chinese mainland, it will result in an increase in our costs and expenses. In order to deliver high-quality services, it is important that our services work well across a range of mobile operating systems, networks, mobile devices and standards that we do not control. We may not be successful in developing relationships with key participants in the mobile industry or in developing services that operate effectively with these operating systems, networks, devices and standards. In the event that it is difficult for our users to access and use our services, particularly on their mobile devices, our user base and user engagement could be harmed, and our business and operating results could be adversely affected. 30 Table of Contents Our operations depend on the performance of the internet infrastructure and fixed telecommunications networks in Chinese mainland. Almost all access to the internet in Chinese mainland is maintained through state-owned telecommunication operators under the administrative control and regulatory supervision of the MIIT. Moreover, we primarily rely on a limited number of telecommunication service providers to provide us with data communications capacity through local telecommunications lines and internet data centers to host our servers. We have limited access to alternative networks or services in the event of disruptions, failures or other problems with Chinese mainland’s internet infrastructure or the fixed telecommunications networks provided by telecommunications service providers. Web traffic in Chinese mainland has experienced significant growth during the past few years. Effective bandwidth and server storage at internet data centers in large cities such as Beijing are scarce. With the expansion of our business, we may be required to upgrade our technology and infrastructure to keep up with the increasing traffic on our platform. We cannot assure you that the internet infrastructure and the fixed telecommunications networks in Chinese mainland will be able to support the demands associated with the continued growth in internet usage. If we cannot increase our capacity to deliver our online services, we may not be able to keep up with the increases in traffic we anticipate from our expanding user base, and the adoption of our services may be hindered, which could adversely impact our business and our ADS price. In addition, we have no control over the costs of the services provided by telecommunications service providers. If the prices we pay for telecommunications and internet services rise significantly, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. Furthermore, if internet access fees or other charges to internet users increase, some users may be prevented from accessing the mobile internet and thus cause the growth of mobile internet users to decelerate. Such deceleration may adversely affect our ability to expand our user base. Our business and operating results may be harmed by service disruptions, cybersecurity related threats or by our failure to timely and effectively scale and adapt our existing technology and infrastructure. People use our platform for real-time communication, socializing, entertainment and information. We have experienced, and may in the future experience, service disruptions, outages and other performance problems due to a variety of factors, including infrastructure changes and cybersecurity related threats as follows: • our technology, system, networks and our users’ devices have been subject to, and may continue to be the target of, cyber-attacks, computer viruses, malicious code, phishing attacks or information security breaches that could result in an unauthorized release, gathering, monitoring, misuse, loss or destruction of confidential, proprietary and other information of ours, our employees or sensitive information provided by our users, or otherwise disrupt our, our users’ or other third parties’ business operations; • we periodically encounter attempts to create false accounts or use our platform to send targeted and untargeted spam messages to our users, or take other actions on our platform for purposes such as spamming or spreading misinformation, and we may not be able to repel spamming attacks; • the use of encryption and other security measures intended to protect our systems and confidential data may not provide absolute security, and losses or unauthorized access to or releases of confidential information may still occur; • our security measures may be breached due to employee error, malfeasance or unauthorized access to sensitive information by our employees, who may be induced by outside third parties, and we may not be able to anticipate any breach of our security or to implement adequate preventative measures; and 31 Table of Contents • we may be subject to information technology system failures or network disruptions caused by natural disasters, accidents, power disruptions, telecommunications failures, acts of terrorism or war, computer viruses, physical or electronic break-ins, or other events or disruptions. Any disruption or failure in our services and infrastructure could also hinder our ability to handle existing or increased traffic on our platform or cause us to lose content stored on our platform, which could significantly harm our business and our ability to retain existing users and attract new users. As the number of our users increases and our users generate more content on our platform, we may be required to expand and adapt our technology and infrastructure to continue to reliably store and analyze this content. It may become increasingly difficult to maintain and improve the performance of our services, especially during peak usage times, as our services become more complex and our user traffic increases. If our users are unable to access our mobile application in a timely fashion, or at all, our user experience may be compromised and the users may seek other mobile social networking tools to meet their needs, and may not return to our platform or use our services as often in the future, or at all. This would negatively impact our ability to attract users and maintain the level of user engagement. Existing or future strategic alliances, long-term investments and acquisitions may have a material and adverse effect on our business, reputation and results of operations. We have made and intend to continue to make long-term investments in third-party companies. From time to time we evaluate and enter into discussions regarding potential long-term investments. Our existing and any future long-term investments could have a material impact on our financial condition and results of operations. If our long-term investments are unable to implement or remediate the necessary controls, procedures and policies, do not perform as we have expected or become less valuable to our business due to a change in our overall business strategy or other reasons, we may not be able to realize the anticipated benefits of investments and we may have to incur unanticipated liabilities, expenses, impairment charges or write-offs. We may also in the future enter into strategic alliances with various third parties. Strategic alliances with third parties could subject us to a number of risks, including risks associated with sharing proprietary information, non-performance by a counterparty and an increase in expenses incurred in establishing new strategic alliances, any of which may materially and adversely affect our business. We may have little ability to control or monitor their actions and to the extent strategic third parties suffer negative publicity or harm to their reputation from events relating to their business, we may also suffer negative publicity or harm to our reputation by virtue of our association with such third parties. In addition, we may acquire additional assets, technologies or businesses that are complementary to our existing business. Future acquisitions and the subsequent integration of new assets and businesses into our own would require significant attention from our management and could result in a diversion of resources from our existing business, which in turn could have an adverse effect on our business operations. Acquired assets or businesses may not generate the financial or operating results we expect. Moreover, the costs of identifying and consummating acquisitions may be significant. In addition to possible shareholders’ approval, we may also have to obtain approvals and licenses from the governmental authorities in Chinese mainland for the acquisitions and comply with applicable PRC laws and regulations, which could result in increased costs and delays. Acquisitions could result in the use of substantial amounts of cash, potentially dilutive issuances of equity securities, the incurrence of debt, the incurrence of significant goodwill impairment charges, amortization expenses for other intangible assets and exposure to potential unknown liabilities of the acquired business. Such use of cash may add significant liquidity pressure on us by materially reducing our existing cash balance and adversely affecting our business operation. The sale of equity or equity linked securities may further dilute our existing shareholders. Debt financings may subject us to restrictive covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends. We rely on assumptions and estimates to calculate certain key operating metrics, and real or perceived inaccuracies in such metrics may harm our reputation and negatively affect our business. The number of paying users of Momo and Tantan is calculated using internal company data that has not been independently verified. While these metrics are based on what we believe to be reasonable calculations for the applicable periods of measurement, there are inherent challenges in measuring usage across our large user base. We treat each account as a separate user for the purposes of calculating our paying users, because it may not always be possible to identify people that have set up more than one account. Accordingly, the calculations of our paying users may not accurately reflect the actual number of people paying for our services. 32 Table of Contents Our measures of user payment may differ from estimates published by third parties or from similarly titled metrics used by our competitors due to differences in methodology. If customers or platform partners do not perceive our user metrics to be accurate representations of our user engagement, or if we discover material inaccuracies in our user metrics, our reputation may be harmed and customers and platform partners may be less willing to allocate their resources or spending to Momo or Tantan, which could negatively affect our business and operating results. We have granted, and expect to continue to grant, share options under our share incentive plans, which may result in increased share-based compensation expenses. We have adopted several share incentive plans as of the date of this annual report for the purpose of granting share-based compensation awards to employees, directors and consultants to incentivize their performance and align their interests with ours. In November 2012, we adopted a share incentive plan, or the 2012 Plan, which was amended and restated in October 2013. In November 2014, we adopted the 2014 share incentive plan, or the 2014 Plan. With the adoption of the 2014 Plan, we no longer grant any incentive shares under the 2012 Plan. The 2014 Plan expired in November 2024. In March 2015, Tantan adopted the 2015 Share Incentive Plan, or the Tantan 2015 Plan, and in July 2018, Tantan adopted the 2018 Share Incentive Plan, or the Tantan 2018 Plan. With the adoption of the Tantan 2018 Plan, we no longer grant any incentive awards under the Tantan 2015 Plan. The Tantan 2015 Plan expired in March 2025. In December 2024, we adopted the 2024 Share Incentive Plan, or the 2024 Plan, pursuant to which a maximum aggregate of Class A ordinary shares may be issued pursuant to all awards granted thereunder shall be the number of Class A ordinary shares subject to awards that were not granted under the 2014 Plan, the number of Class A ordinary shares subject to awards granted under the 2014 Plan that have expired or otherwise been terminated without having been exercised in full and the Class A ordinary shares issued pursuant to awards granted under the 2014 Plan that have been forfeited to or repurchased by the Company due to failure to vest. Beginning in 2025, the number of shares reserved for future issuances under the 2024 Plan would be increased by a number equal to 1.5% of total number of outstanding shares on the last day of the immediately preceding calendar year on the first day of each calendar year during the term of the 2024 Plan. As of March 31, 2026, 28,478,364 options to purchase Class A ordinary shares (excluding those already forfeited and expired) had been granted under the 2012 Plan, 2,600,000 of which remained outstanding. In addition, as of March 31, 2026, options to purchase 58,209,372 Class A ordinary shares (excluding those already forfeited and canceled) and 1,115,001 restricted share units (excluding those already forfeited) had been granted under the 2014 Plan, of which 22,098,150 options and 93,750 restricted share units remained outstanding. As of March 31, 2026, options to purchase 7,661,926 Class A ordinary shares (excluding those already forfeited and canceled) and 100,000 restricted share units (excluding those already forfeited) had been granted under the 2024 Plan, of which 7,656,926 options and 100,000 restricted share units remained outstanding. As of March 31, 2026, options to purchase 819,683 ordinary shares of Tantan (adjusted retrospectively for share split and excluding those that have been forfeited or redeemed) remained outstanding under the Tantan 2015 Plan and options to purchase 2,643,478 ordinary shares of Tantan (adjusted retrospectively for share split and excluding those that have been forfeited or redeemed) remained outstanding under the Tantan 2018 Plan. See “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees—B. Compensation” for a detailed discussion. We expect to incur share-based compensation expenses of RMB124.5 million, RMB90.5 million and RMB75.1 million in 2026, 2027 and after 2027, respectively, in connection with the currently outstanding share-based awards, and we may grant additional share-based awards under our share incentive plans, which will further increase our share-based compensation expenses. We believe the granting of share-based awards is of significant importance to our ability to attract and retain our employees, and we will continue to grant share-based awards to employees in the future. As a result, our expenses associated with share-based compensation may increase, which may have an adverse effect on our results of operations. If we fail to implement and maintain an effective system of internal controls, we may be unable to accurately report our results of operations or prevent fraud or fail to meet our reporting obligations, and investor confidence and the market price of our ADSs may be materially and adversely affected. We are subject to reporting obligations under the U.S. securities laws. The SEC, as required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, has adopted rules requiring every public company to include a report of management in its annual report that contains management’s assessment of the effectiveness of such company’s internal controls over financial reporting. In addition, an independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of the company’s internal control over financial reporting. Our management has concluded that our internal controls over financial reporting were effective as of December 31, 2025. Our independent registered public accounting firm has issued an attestation report, which has concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective in all material aspects as of December 31, 2025. However, if we fail to maintain effective internal controls over financial reporting in the future, our management and our independent registered public accounting firm may not be able to conclude that we have effective internal controls over financial reporting at a reasonable assurance level. This could result in a loss of investor confidence in the reliability of our financial conditions which in turn could negatively impact the trading price of our ADSs and result in lawsuits being filed against us by our shareholders or otherwise harm our reputation. Furthermore, we have incurred and anticipate that we will continue to incur considerable costs and use significant management time and other resources in an effort to comply with Section 404 and other requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. 33 Table of Contents A severe or prolonged downturn in the Chinese or global economy and changes in international trade policies, or the escalation of tensions in international relations, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Economic conditions in China are sensitive to global economic conditions, as well as changes in domestic economic and political policies and the expected or perceived overall economic growth rate in China. Any severe or prolonged slowdown in the global or Chinese economy may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. COVID-19 had a severe and negative impact on the Chinese and the global economy from 2020 through 2022, and the global macroeconomic environment still faces numerous challenges. The challenges in China’s real estate sector and the related debt problems pose significant risks to the macroeconomic growth prospects and could lead to soft consumer sentiment and potentially a stagnation in aggregate consumer demand. The Russia-Ukraine conflict, the Hamas-Israel conflict, the conflict in the Persian Gulf and surrounding areas as far west as Israel and Lebanon, and the restrictions at various times on shipping through the straits of Hormuz and the Red Sea have heightened geopolitical tensions across the world. The impact of the regional conflicts has contributed to increases in food and energy prices and thus to inflation more generally. There have also been concerns about the relationship between China and other countries which may potentially have economic effects. In particular, there is significant uncertainty about the future relationship between the United States and China with respect to a wide range of issues including trade policies, treaties, government regulations and tariffs. The U.S. government has implemented policies restricting international trade and investment, such as tariffs, export controls, economic or trade sanctions, and foreign investment filing and approval requirements. These actions may materially and adversely affect international trade, global financial markets, and the stability of the global economic condition. In the past, the U.S. government has imposed higher tariffs on certain products imported from China to penalize China for what it characterizes as unfair trade practices. China has responded by imposing higher tariffs on certain products imported from the United States. The tensions between the United States and China in recent years have led to additional, or higher tariffs imposed by the United States on products imported from China and restrictions on the sale of certain products into the United States. China has responded by imposing, and proposing to impose additional, or higher tariffs on products imported from the United States, among other measures. On October 28, 2024, the U.S. Department of the Treasury issued a final rule on outbound investment, or the Outbound Investment Rule, to implement the executive order of August 9, 2023 which became effective on January 2, 2025. The Outbound Investment Rule imposes investment prohibition and notification requirements on U.S. persons for a wide range of investments in entities associated with China (including Hong Kong and Macau), collectively defined as “Covered Foreign Persons,” that are engaged in activities relating to three sectors: (i) semiconductors and microelectronics, (ii) quantum information technologies, and (iii) artificial intelligence systems. U.S. persons subject to the Outbound Investment Rule are prohibited from making, or required to report, certain investments in Covered Foreign Persons, which are defined as “covered transactions.” Additionally, on February 21, 2025, the White House released President Trump’s “America First Investment Policy” memorandum, outlining several initiatives to incentivize investment from U.S. allies and partners while restricting investments involving “foreign adversaries” including China. Among other things, the policy aims to expand the industry sectors covered by the U.S. outbound investment regulations and supplement outbound restrictions through the imposition of sanctions. As of the date of this annual report, the proposed changes under the America First Investment Policy are not implemented, although the proposed restrictions may further deepen the uncertainties for cross-border collaborations, investments, and financing opportunities of China-based issuers including us. Furthermore, on December 18, 2025, the Comprehensive Outbound Investment National Security Act of 2025, or the COINS Act, was enacted as part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2026. The COINS Act largely preserves the core framework of the Outbound Investment Rule, while expanding its scope and coverage in certain respects. The COINS Act will not become effective until the U.S. Department of the Treasury issues implementing regulations, which must be promulgated through notice-and-comment rulemaking and no later than March 13, 2027. Accordingly, the Treasury may amend, expand or otherwise modify existing outbound investment prohibitions and restrictions pursuant to the COINS Act. We believe Hello Group Inc. is not a “Covered Foreign Person” as defined in the Outbound Investment Rule. However, if we were to be deemed a Covered Foreign Person due to changes in our business operations or amendments to relevant laws and regulations, our ability to raise capital would be significantly and negatively affected. In such case, the trading prices of our securities, including the Class A ordinary shares, ADSs and the convertible notes may be materially and adversely affected and the value of our securities may decline significantly. 34 Table of Contents Increasing focus with respect to environmental, social and governance matters may impose additional costs on us or expose us to additional risks. Failure to comply with the laws and regulations on environmental, social and governance matters may subject us to penalties and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. The Chinese mainland government and public advocacy groups have been increasingly focused on environment, social and governance, or ESG, issues in recent years, making our business more sensitive to ESG issues and changes in governmental policies and laws and regulations associated with environment protection and other ESG-related matters. Investor advocacy groups, certain institutional investors, investment funds, and other influential investors are also increasingly focused on ESG practices and in recent years have placed increasing importance on the implications and social cost of their investments. Regardless of the industry, increased focus from investors and the Chinese mainland government on ESG and similar matters may hinder access to capital, as investors may decide to reallocate capital or to not commit capital as a result of their assessment of a company’s ESG practices. Any ESG concern or issue could increase our regulatory compliance costs. If we do not adapt to or comply with the evolving expectations and standards on ESG matters from investors and the Chinese mainland government or are perceived to have not responded appropriately to the growing concern for ESG issues, regardless of whether there is a legal requirement to do so, we may suffer from reputational damage and the business, financial condition, and the price of our ADSs could be materially and adversely effected. We face risks related to health epidemics, severe weather conditions and other outbreaks. Our business could be adversely affected by the effects of COVID-19, avian influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), the influenza A virus, Ebola virus, severe weather conditions or other epidemics or outbreaks. Health or other government regulations adopted in response to an epidemic, severe weather conditions such as snowstorms, floods or hazardous air pollution, or other outbreaks may require temporary closure of our offices. Such closures may disrupt our and the VIE’s business operations and adversely affect our results of operations. In recent years, there have been outbreaks of epidemics in China and globally. We are also vulnerable to natural disasters and other calamities. Although we have servers that are hosted in an offsite location, our backup system does not capture data on a real-time basis and we may be unable to recover certain data in the event of a server failure. We cannot assure you that any backup systems will be adequate to protect us from the effects of fire, floods, typhoons, earthquakes, power loss, telecommunications failures, break-ins, war, riots, terrorist attacks or similar events. Any of the foregoing events may give rise to server interruptions, breakdowns, system failures, technology platform failures or internet failures, which could cause the loss or corruption of data or malfunctions of software or hardware as well as adversely affect our ability to provide services on our platform. We have limited insurance coverage. The insurance industry in Chinese mainland is still at an early stage of development and business and litigation insurance products offered in Chinese mainland are limited. Other than the directors and officers liability insurance and certain real estate property insurance, we do not maintain any third-party liability, property, business interruption or key-man life insurance. The costs of insuring for these risks and the difficulties associated with acquiring such insurance on commercially reasonable terms make it impractical for us to have such insurance. In addition, any insurance policies that we maintain may not adequately cover our actual loss and we may not be able to successfully claim our losses under the insurance policies at all or on a timely basis. Any business disruption, litigation or natural disaster may cause us to incur substantial costs and divert our resources. 35 Table of Contents Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure If the Chinese mainland government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating certain of our operations in Chinese mainland do not comply with Chinese mainland regulations relating to the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations. Foreign ownership of telecommunication businesses and certain other businesses, such as provision of internet video and online game services, is subject to restrictions under current PRC laws and regulations. For example, foreign investors are generally not allowed to own more than 50% of the equity interests in a commercial internet content provider or other value-added telecommunication service provider (other than operating e-commerce, domestic multi-party communication, store-and-forward, and call center). In addition, foreign investors are prohibited from investing in companies engaged in internet video, culture (other than music) and publishing business and film/radio and television drama production and operation (including importation) business. We are a Cayman Islands company and our Chinese mainland subsidiaries are considered as foreign-invested enterprises. Accordingly, none of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries are eligible to operate internet video and other businesses which foreign-owned companies are prohibited or restricted from conducting in Chinese mainland. To comply with PRC laws and regulations, we conduct such business activities through the VIEs in Chinese mainland, including Beijing Momo, Tantan Culture, Beijing Top Maker, Beijing Perfect Match and SpaceTime Beijing, and their respective subsidiaries. Our WFOEs, including Beijing Momo IT and Tantan Technology (Beijing) Co., Ltd. have entered into contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders, and such contractual arrangements enable us to exercise effective control over, receive substantially all of the economic benefits of, and have an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interest and assets in the VIEs when and to the extent permitted by PRC law. Because of these contractual arrangements, we are the primary beneficiary of the VIEs in Chinese mainland and hence consolidate their financial results as our variable interest entities under U.S. GAAP. We conduct our operations in Chinese mainland through (i) our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and (ii) the VIEs with which we maintained these contractual arrangements and their subsidiaries in Chinese mainland. Investors in our ADSs thus are not purchasing equity interest in the VIEs in Chinese mainland but instead are purchasing equity interest in a Cayman Islands holding company with no equity ownership in the VIEs. Our holding company in the Cayman Islands, the VIEs, and investments in our Company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the Chinese mainland government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and, consequently, the business, financial condition, and results of operations of the VIEs and our Company as a group. In addition, our ADSs may decline in value or become worthless if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of the VIEs which contributed 80.7% of our revenues in 2025. If the Chinese mainland government finds that our contractual arrangements do not comply with its restrictions on foreign investment in internet content and other foreign-restricted services, or if the Chinese mainland government otherwise finds that we, the VIEs, or any of their subsidiaries are in violation of PRC laws or regulations or lack the necessary permits or licenses to operate our business, the Chinese mainland regulatory authorities, including but not limited to the CAC, the MIIT, the National Radio and Television Administration, the State Film Bureau, the National Press and Publication Administration, (formerly known as the General Administration of Press and Publication), the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Ministry of Commerce, would have authority in dealing with such violations or failures. In the opinion of our Chinese mainland counsel, Jingtian & Gongcheng, the ownership structure of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs are in compliance with existing PRC laws, rules and regulations. There are, however, substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current or future PRC laws and regulations. Thus, we cannot assure you that the Chinese mainland government will not ultimately take a view contrary to the opinion of our Chinese mainland counsel. If we are found to be in violation of any PRC laws or regulations or if the contractual arrangements among our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, the VIEs and their respective shareholders are determined to be illegal or invalid by the Chinese mainland court, arbitral tribunal or regulatory authorities, the governmental authorities would have discretion in dealing with such violation, including, without limitation: • revoke our business and operating licenses; • require us to discontinue or restrict operations; • restrict our right to collect revenues; 36 Table of Contents • block our websites; • require us to restructure the operations in such a way as to compel us to establish a new enterprise, re-apply for the necessary licenses or relocate our businesses, staff and assets; • requiring us to restructure our ownership structure or operations, including terminating the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and deregistering the equity pledges of the VIEs, which in turn would affect our ability to consolidate, derive economic interests from, or exert effective control over the VIEs; • restricting or prohibiting our use of the proceeds of any of our offshore financings to finance our business and operations in Chinese mainland; • impose additional conditions or requirements with which we may not be able to comply; or • take other regulatory or enforcement actions against us that could be harmful to our business. If the Chinese mainland government determines that the contractual arrangements constituting part of our ownership structure do not comply with Chinese mainland regulations, or if these regulations change or are interpreted differently in the future, our ADSs may decline in value if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of the VIEs, which conducts substantially all our business operations that generate external revenues. Our holding company in the Cayman Islands, the VIEs, and investors of our company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the Chinese mainland government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of our company. Any of the aforementioned events or penalties could cause significant disruption to our business operations and severely damage our reputation, which would in turn materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. If occurrences of any of these events results in our inability to direct the activities of the VIEs in Chinese mainland that most significantly impact their economic performance, or our failure to receive the economic benefits from the VIEs, we may not be able to consolidate the entity in the consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. On February 17, 2023, the CSRC released the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, and five supporting guidelines, which came into effect on March 31, 2023. Officials from the CSRC clarified that, as for companies seeking overseas listings with contractual arrangements, the CSRC will seek opinions from other competent regulatory authorities and complete the filings of the overseas listings of such companies if they duly meet the compliance requirements, and support the development and growth of these companies by enabling them to utilize two markets and two kinds of resources. If we fail to complete filings with the CSRC in a timely manner or at all, for any future offshore offering or listing, or any other capital raising activities, our ability to raise or utilize funds could be materially and adversely affected, and we may even need to unwind our contractual arrangements or restructure our business operations in order to complete such filings. However, given that the Overseas Listing Trial Measures were recently promulgated, there remains substantial uncertainties as to their interpretation, application, and enforcement and how they will affect our operations and our future financing. We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders for our operations in Chinese mainland, which may not be as effective in providing operational control as direct ownership. Due to the Chinese mainland restrictions or prohibitions on foreign ownership of internet and other related businesses in Chinese mainland, we operate our business in Chinese mainland through a number of the VIEs, in which we have no ownership interest. We rely on a series of contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders, including the powers of attorney, to control and operate the business. Our ability to control the VIEs depends on the powers of attorney, pursuant to which our Chinese mainland subsidiaries can vote on all matters requiring shareholder approval in the VIEs. We believe these powers of attorney are legally enforceable but may not be as effective as direct equity ownership. These contractual arrangements are intended to provide us with effective control over the VIEs and allow us to obtain economic benefits from them. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—C. Organizational Structure—Contractual Arrangements with the VIEs and Their Respective Shareholders” for more details about these contractual arrangements. 37 Table of Contents Although we have been advised by our Chinese mainland counsel, Jingtian & Gongcheng, that these contractual arrangements are valid, binding and enforceable under existing PRC laws and regulations, these contractual arrangements may not be as effective in providing control over the VIEs as direct ownership. If the VIEs or their respective shareholders fail to perform their respective obligations under the contractual arrangements, we may incur substantial costs and expend substantial resources to enforce our rights. All of these contractual arrangements are governed by and interpreted in accordance with PRC law, and disputes arising from these contractual arrangements will be resolved through arbitration in Chinese mainland. However, the legal system in Chinese mainland, particularly as it relates to arbitration proceedings, is still developing and evolving. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us.” There are very few precedents and little official guidance as to how contractual arrangements in the context of a variable interest entity, or a VIE, should be interpreted or enforced under PRC law. There remain uncertainties regarding the ultimate outcome of arbitration should legal action become necessary. These uncertainties could limit our ability to enforce these contractual arrangements. In addition, arbitration awards are final and can only be enforced in Chinese mainland courts through arbitration award recognition proceedings, which could cause additional expenses and delays. In the event we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements or we experience significant delays or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, we may not be able to exert effective control over the VIEs and may lose control over the assets owned by the VIEs. As a result, we may be unable to consolidate the VIEs in the consolidated financial statements, our ability to conduct our business may be negatively affected, and our business operations could be severely disrupted, which could materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition. We may lose the ability to use and enjoy assets held by the VIEs that are important to the operation of the business if the VIEs declare bankruptcy or become subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding. The VIEs hold certain assets that are important to our business operations, including the ICP license, the internet culture operation license and the internet audio/video program transmission license. Under our contractual arrangements, the respective shareholders of the VIEs may not voluntarily liquidate the VIEs or approve them to sell, transfer, mortgage or dispose of their respective assets or legal or beneficial interests exceeding certain threshold in the business in any manner without our prior consent. However, in the event that the shareholders breach this obligation and voluntarily liquidate the VIEs, or the VIEs declare bankruptcy, or all or part of their assets become subject to liens or rights of third-party creditors, we may be unable to continue some or all of our business operations, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, if the VIEs undergo a voluntary or involuntary liquidation proceeding, their respective shareholders or unrelated third-party creditors may claim rights to some or all of its assets, thereby hindering our ability to operate our business, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Contractual arrangements we have entered into with the VIEs may be subject to scrutiny by the Chinese mainland tax authorities. A finding that we owe additional taxes could significantly reduce the consolidated net income and the value of your investment. Pursuant to applicable PRC laws and regulations, arrangements and transactions among related parties may be subject to audit or challenge by the Chinese mainland tax authorities. We may be subject to adverse tax consequences if the Chinese mainland tax authorities determine that the contractual arrangements among our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, the VIEs and their respective shareholders are not on an arm’s length basis and therefore constitute favorable transfer pricing. As a result, the Chinese mainland tax authorities could require that the VIEs adjust their taxable income upward for Chinese mainland tax purposes. Such an adjustment could adversely affect us by increasing the VIEs’ tax expenses without reducing the tax expenses of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, subjecting the VIEs to late payment fees and other penalties for under-payment of taxes, and resulting in our Chinese mainland subsidiaries’ loss of their preferential tax treatment. The consolidated results of operations may be adversely affected if the VIEs’ tax liabilities increase or if they are subject to late payment fees or other penalties. 38 Table of Contents If the chops of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs are not kept safely, are stolen or are used by unauthorized persons or for unauthorized purposes, the corporate governance of these entities could be severely and adversely compromised. In Chinese mainland, a company chop or seal serves as the legal representation of the company towards third parties even when unaccompanied by a signature. Each legally registered company in Chinese mainland is required to maintain a company chop, which must be registered with the local Public Security Bureau. In addition to this mandatory company chop, companies may have several other chops which can be used for specific purposes. The chops of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs are generally held securely by personnel we designate or approve in accordance with our internal control procedures. To the extent those chops are not kept safe, are stolen or are used by unauthorized persons or for unauthorized purposes, the corporate governance of these entities could be severely and adversely compromised and those corporate entities may be bound to abide by the terms of any documents so chopped, even if they were chopped by an individual who lacked the requisite power and authority to do so. The shareholders of the VIEs may have potential conflicts of interest with us, which may materially and adversely affect our business. Some of the shareholders of the VIEs are also our directors or officers. Conflicts of interest may arise between the roles of these individuals as directors or officers of our company and as shareholders of the VIEs. We rely on these individuals to abide by the laws of the Cayman Islands, which provide that directors and officers owe a fiduciary duty to our company to act in good faith and in the best interest of our company and not to use their positions for personal gain. The shareholders of the VIEs have executed powers of attorney to appoint our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, or a person designated by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to vote on their behalf and exercise voting rights as shareholders of the VIEs. We cannot assure you that when conflicts arise, shareholders of the VIEs will act in the best interest of our company or that conflicts will be resolved in our favor. If we cannot resolve any conflicts of interest or disputes between us and these shareholders, we would have to rely on legal proceedings, which may be expensive, time-consuming and disruptive to our operations. There is also substantial uncertainty as to the outcome of any such legal proceedings. We may rely on dividends paid by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to fund cash and financing requirements. Any limitation on the ability of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries to pay dividends to us could have a material adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business and to pay dividends to holders of the ADSs and our ordinary shares. We are a holding company, and we may rely on dividends to be paid by our Chinese mainland subsidiaries for our cash and financing requirements, including the funds necessary to pay dividends and other cash distributions to the holders of the ADSs and our ordinary shares and service any debt we may incur. If our Chinese mainland subsidiaries incur debt on their own behalf in the future, the instruments governing the debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends or make other distributions to us. Under PRC laws and regulations, a foreign-invested enterprise in Chinese mainland, such as Beijing Momo Information Technology Co., Ltd., or Beijing Momo IT, may pay dividends only out of its accumulated profits as determined in accordance with Chinese mainland accounting standards and regulations. In addition, any company, including a foreign-invested enterprise is required to set aside 10% of its after-tax profits each year to fund certain statutory common reserve funds, until the aggregate amount of such funds reach 50% of its registered capital. If the statutory common reserve funds are not sufficient to make up its losses in previous years (if any), the company shall use the profits of the current year to make up the losses before accruing the statutory common reserve funds. At the discretion of the shareholders of a foreign-invested enterprise, it may, after accruing the statutory common reserve funds, allocate a portion of its after-tax profits based on Chinese mainland accounting standards to discretionary common reserve funds. These statutory common reserve funds and discretionary common reserve funds are not distributable as cash dividends. Any limitation on the ability of our wholly-owned Chinese mainland subsidiaries to pay dividends or make other distributions to us could materially and adversely limit our ability to grow, make investments or acquisitions that could be beneficial to our business, pay dividends, or otherwise fund and conduct our business. Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland The PCAOB had historically been unable to inspect our auditor in relation to their audit work performed for our financial statements and the inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of our auditor in the past has deprived our investors with the benefits of such inspections. Our auditor, the independent registered public accounting firm that issues the audit report included elsewhere in this annual report, as an auditor of companies that are traded publicly in the United States and a firm registered with the PCAOB, is subject to laws in the United States pursuant to which the PCAOB conducts regular inspections to assess its compliance with the applicable professional standards. The auditor is located in Chinese mainland, a jurisdiction where the PCAOB was historically unable to conduct inspections and investigations completely before 2022. As a result, we and investors in the ADSs were deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections. The inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of auditors in Chinese mainland in the past has made it more difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit procedures or quality control procedures as compared to auditors outside of Chinese mainland that are subject to the PCAOB inspections. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed Chinese mainland and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. However, if the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong, and we use an accounting firm headquartered in one of these jurisdictions to issue an audit report on our financial statements filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, we and investors in our ADSs would be deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections again, which could cause investors and potential investors in the ADSs to lose confidence in our auditor’s audit procedures and reported financial information and the quality of our financial statements. 39 Table of Contents Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCAA in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in Chinese mainland. The delisting of the ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment. Pursuant to the HFCAA, if the SEC determines that we have filed audit reports issued by a registered public accounting firm that has not been subject to inspections by the PCAOB for two consecutive years, the SEC will prohibit our shares or ADSs from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report to notify the SEC of its determination that the PCAOB was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong and our auditor was subject to that determination. In May 2022, the SEC conclusively listed us as a Commission-Identified Issuer under the HFCAA following the filing of our annual report on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB removed Chinese mainland and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. As of the date of this annual report, the PCAOB has not issued any new determination that it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in any jurisdiction. For this reason, we do not expect to be identified so after we file this annual report on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025. Each year, the PCAOB will determine whether it can inspect and investigate completely audit firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong, among other jurisdictions. If the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong and we use an accounting firm headquartered in one of these jurisdictions to issue an audit report on our financial statements filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, we would be identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer following the filing of the annual report on Form 20-F for the relevant fiscal year. In accordance with the HFCAA, our securities would be prohibited from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States if we are identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer for two consecutive years in the future. If our shares and ADSs are prohibited from trading in the United States, there is no certainty that we will be able to list on a non-U.S. exchange or that a market for our shares will develop outside of the United States. A prohibition of being able to trade in the United States would substantially impair your ability to sell or purchase our ADSs when you wish to do so, and the risk and uncertainty associated with delisting would have a negative impact on the price of our ADSs. Also, such a prohibition would significantly affect our ability to raise capital on terms acceptable to us, or at all, which would have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and prospects. The Chinese mainland government’s significant oversight and discretion over our business operations could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs. We conduct our business primarily in Chinese mainland. Our operations in Chinese mainland are governed by PRC laws and regulations. The Chinese mainland government has significant oversight and discretion over the conduct of our business, and may intervene or influence our operations. We cannot rule out the possibility that the Chinese mainland government will in the future release regulations or policies that directly or indirectly affect our industry or require us to seek additional permission to continue our operations, which could result in a material adverse change in our operation and/or the value of our ADSs. Therefore, investors of our company and our business face potential uncertainty from actions taken by the Chinese mainland government affecting our business. 40 Table of Contents Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us. As a civil law jurisdiction, the Chinese mainland legal system is based on written statutes and court decisions have limited precedential value. The Chinese mainland legal system evolves rapidly, and the interpretations of many laws, regulations and rules may contain inconsistencies and enforcement of these laws, regulations and rules involves uncertainties. The Chinese mainland legal system is based in part on government policies. As Chinese mainland is geographically large and divided into various provinces and municipalities, different regulations and policies may have different and varying applications and interpretations in different parts of Chinese mainland, and it is possible that we may not be aware of our violation of these policies and rules until sometime after the occurrence of the violation. Such unpredictability towards our contractual, property (including intellectual property) and procedural rights could adversely affect our business and impede our ability to continue our operations. We face uncertainties with respect to the implementation of the PRC Foreign Investment Law and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations. On March 15, 2019, the National People’s Congress approved the PRC Foreign Investment Law, which took effect on January 1, 2020 and replaced the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Enterprise Law, the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Joint Venture Enterprise Law and the Foreign Owned Enterprise Law, together with their implementation rules and ancillary regulations, to become the legal foundation for foreign investment in Chinese mainland. Further to the PRC Foreign Investment Law, on December 26, 2019, the State Council of the PRC passed the Regulation for Implementing the PRC Foreign Investment Law, which took effect on January 1, 2020. The PRC Foreign Investment Law and its implementing regulations embody an expected Chinese mainland regulatory trend to rationalize its foreign investment regulatory regime in line with prevailing international practice and the legislative efforts to unify the corporate legal requirements for both foreign and domestic investments. Under the PRC Foreign Investment Law, “foreign investment” refers to the investment activities in Chinese mainland directly or indirectly conducted by foreign individuals, enterprises or other entities. The PRC Foreign Investment Law and its implementing regulations stipulate three forms of foreign investment, and does not explicitly stipulate contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment. However, the PRC Foreign Investment Law provides a catch-all provision under the definition of “foreign investment” to include investments made by foreign investors in Chinese mainland through means stipulated by laws or administrative regulations, or other methods prescribed by the State Council. Therefore, there are possibilities that future laws, administrative regulations or provisions prescribed by the State Council may regard contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment, at which time it would be uncertain as to whether foreign investment via contractual arrangements would be deemed to be in violation of the foreign investment access requirements and how the above-mentioned contractual arrangements would be regulated. There is no guarantee that the contractual arrangements and our business will not be materially and adversely affected in the future due to changes in PRC laws and regulations. If future laws, administrative regulations or provisions prescribed by the State Council mandate further actions to be completed by companies with existing contractual arrangements, we may face substantial uncertainties as to whether such actions can be timely completed, or at all. Failure to take timely and appropriate measures to cope with any of these or similar regulatory compliance challenges could materially and adversely affect our current corporate structure and business operations. 41 Table of Contents Chinese mainland’s M&A Rules and certain other Chinese mainland regulations establish complex procedures for some acquisitions of Chinese companies by foreign investors, which could make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions in Chinese mainland. The Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules, and other recently adopted regulations and rules concerning mergers and acquisitions established additional procedures and requirements that could make merger and acquisition activities by foreign investors more time consuming and complex. For example, the M&A Rules require that the Ministry of Commerce be notified in advance of any change-of-control transaction in which a foreign investor takes control of a Chinese mainland domestic enterprise, if (i) any important industry is concerned, (ii) such transaction involves factors that impact or may impact national economic security, or (iii) such transaction will lead to a change in control of a domestic enterprise which holds a famous trademark or Chinese mainland time-honored brand. Moreover, the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on August 30, 2007, effective as of August 1, 2008, and amended on June 24, 2022, and the Rules of the State Council on Filing Threshold for Concentration of Undertakings promulgated on August 3, 2008 and amended on September 18, 2018 and January 22, 2024, respectively, require that transactions which are deemed concentrations and involve parties with specified turnover thresholds (i.e., during the previous fiscal year, (i) the total global turnover of all operators participating in the transaction exceeds RMB12 billion and at least two of these operators each had a turnover of more than RMB800 million within Chinese mainland, or (ii) the total turnover within Chinese mainland of all the operators participating in the concentration exceeds RMB4 billion, and at least two of these operators each had a turnover of more than RMB800 million within Chinese mainland) must be cleared by the PRC anti-monopoly law enforcement authority of the State Council before they can be completed. In addition, on February 3, 2011, the General Office of the State Council promulgated a Notice on Establishing the Security Review System for Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the Circular 6, which officially established a security review system for mergers and acquisitions of domestic enterprises by foreign investors. Further, on August 25, 2011, the Ministry of Commerce promulgated the Regulations on Implementation of Security Review System for the Merger and Acquisition of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, which became effective on September 1, 2011, to implement the Circular 6. Under the Circular 6, a security review is required for mergers and acquisitions by foreign investors having “national defense and security” concerns and mergers and acquisitions by which foreign investors may acquire the “de facto control” of domestic enterprises with “national security” concerns. Under the Regulations on Implementation of Security Review System for the Merger and Acquisition of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, the Ministry of Commerce focused on the substance and actual impact of the transaction when deciding whether a specific merger or acquisition was subject to security review. If the Ministry of Commerce decided that a specific merger or acquisition is subject to security review, it would submit it to the Inter-Ministerial Panel, an authority established under the Circular 6 led by the National Development and Reform Commission, or the NDRC, and the Ministry of Commerce under the leadership of the State Council, to carry out security review. The regulations prohibit foreign investors from bypassing the security review by structuring transactions through trusts, indirect investments, leases, loans, control through contractual arrangements or offshore transactions. There is no explicit provision or official interpretation stating that the merging or acquisition of a company engaged in the social network, value-added business requires security review, and there is no requirement that acquisitions completed prior to the promulgation of the Circular 6 are subject to review. On April 30, 2019, the NDRC issued the Announcement on the Adjustment of Foreign Investment Security Review Reporting Channel, stating that the security review is now subject to its review because of the government reformation. In December 2020, the NDRC and the Ministry of Commerce promulgated the Measures for the Security Review of Foreign Investment, which came into effect on January 18, 2021. The NDRC and the Ministry of Commerce will establish a working mechanism office in charge of the security review of foreign investment. Investment in certain key areas with bearing on national security, such as important cultural products and services, important information technology and internet services and products, key technologies and other important areas with bearing on national security which results in the acquisition of de facto control of investee companies, shall be filed with a specifically established office before such investment is carried out. In the future, we may grow our business by acquiring complementary businesses. Complying with the requirements of the above-mentioned regulations and other relevant rules to complete such transactions could be time consuming, and any required approval processes, including obtaining approval from the NDRC or its local counterparts may delay or inhibit our ability to complete such transactions. It is unclear whether our business would be deemed to fall into the industry that raises “national defense and security” or “national security” concerns. However, the NDRC or other government agencies may publish explanations in the future determining that our business is in an industry subject to the security review, in which case our future acquisitions in Chinese mainland, including those by way of entering into contractual control arrangements with target entities, may be closely scrutinized or prohibited. The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval. The M&A Rules requires an overseas special purpose vehicle formed for listing purposes through acquisitions of Chinese mainland domestic companies and controlled by Chinese mainland persons or entities to obtain the approval of the CSRC prior to the listing and trading of such special purpose vehicle’s securities on an overseas stock exchange. The interpretation and application of the regulations remain unclear, and our offshore offerings may ultimately require approval of the CSRC. If the CSRC approval is required, it is uncertain whether we can or how long it will take us to obtain the approval and, even if we obtain such CSRC approval, the approval could be rescinded. Any failure to obtain or delay in obtaining the CSRC approval for any of our offshore offerings, or a rescission of such approval if obtained by us, would subject us to sanctions imposed by the CSRC or other Chinese mainland regulatory authorities, which could include fines and penalties on our operations in Chinese mainland, restrictions or limitations on our ability to pay dividends outside of Chinese mainland, and other forms of sanctions that may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. On February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, and five supporting guidelines, which became effective on March 31, 2023. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures comprehensively improves and reforms the existing regulatory regime for overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities and regulates both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities by adopting a filing-based regulatory regime. According to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, any of our offering and listing in an overseas market in future may be subject to the filing with the CSRC. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Chinese Mainland—The approval of or filing with the CSRC or other Chinese mainland government authorities may be required in connection with our offshore offerings under PRC law, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval.” 42 Table of Contents Furthermore, the PRC anti-monopoly regulators have promulgated new anti-monopoly and competition laws and regulations and strengthened the enforcement under these laws and regulations. There remain uncertainties as to how the laws, regulations and guidelines recently promulgated will be implemented and whether these laws, regulations and guidelines will have a material impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. We cannot assure you that our business operations comply with such regulations and authorities’ requirements in all respects. If any non-compliance is raised by relevant authorities and determined against us, we may be subject to fines and other penalties. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with the Anti-Monopoly Guidelines for Platforms Economy Sector and other Chinese mainland anti-monopoly laws and regulations may result in governmental investigations or enforcement actions, litigation or claims against us and could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.” According to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, Chinese mainland domestic companies that seek to offer and list securities in overseas markets, either in direct or indirect means, are required to fulfill the filing procedure with the CSRC and report relevant information. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures provides that if the issuer meets the following criteria, the overseas securities offering and listing conducted by such issuer will be deemed as indirect overseas offering by Chinese mainland domestic companies: (i) 50% or more of any of the issuer’s operating revenue, total profit, total assets or net assets as documented in its audited consolidated financial statements for the most recent fiscal year is accounted for by domestic companies; and (ii) the main parts of the issuer’s business activities are conducted in Chinese mainland, or its main place(s) of business are located in Chinese mainland, or the majority of senior management staff in charge of its business operations and management are Chinese mainland citizens or have their usual place(s) of residence located in Chinese mainland. Furthermore, according to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, if a domestic company fails to complete the filing procedure or conceals any material fact or falsifies any major content in its filing documents, such domestic company may be subject to administrative penalties, such as order to rectify, warnings, fines, and its controlling shareholders, actual controllers, the person directly in charge and other directly liable persons may also be subject to administrative penalties, such as warnings and fines. However, since the Overseas Listing Trial Measures were newly promulgated, the interpretation, application and enforcement of Overseas Listing Trial Measures remain unclear. On February 17, 2023, CSRC also issued the Notice on Administration for the Filing of Overseas Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, which, among others, provided that the domestic companies that have already been listed overseas on or before the effective date of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures (i.e., March 31, 2023) shall be deemed as existing issuers. Existing issuers are not required to complete the filling procedures immediately, and they shall be required to file with the CSRC when subsequent matters such as refinancing are involved. Furthermore, according to the Negative List promulgated by the Ministry of Commerce and the NDRC and effective on November 1, 2024, domestic enterprises engaged in activities in any field prohibited from foreign investment under the Negative List shall be subject to review and approval by the authorities of Chinese mainland when listing and trading overseas. If it is determined that any approval, filing or other administrative procedure from the CSRC or other Chinese mainland governmental authorities is required for any future offering or listing, we cannot assure that we can obtain the required approval or accomplish the required filings or other regulatory procedures in a timely manner, or at all. If we fail to obtain the approval or complete the filings and other regulatory procedures, we may face sanctions by the CSRC or other Chinese mainland regulatory agencies, which may include fines and penalties on our operations in Chinese mainland, limitations on our operating privileges in Chinese mainland, restrictions on or prohibition of the payments or remittance of dividends by our subsidiaries in Chinese mainland, or other actions that could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, reputation and prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs. The CSRC or other Chinese mainland regulatory authorities also may take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, to halt our offerings before settlement and delivery of the shares offered. Consequently, if investors engage in market trading or other activities in anticipation of and prior to settlement and delivery, they do so at the risk that settlement and delivery may not occur. In addition, if the CSRC or other regulatory authorities later promulgate new rules or explanations requiring that we obtain their approvals or accomplish the required filing or other regulatory procedures for our prior offshore offerings, we may be unable to obtain a waiver of such approval requirements, if and when procedures are established to obtain such a waiver. Any uncertainties or negative publicity regarding such approval requirement could materially and adversely affect our business, prospects, financial condition, reputation, and the trading price of our ADSs. 43 Table of Contents In December 2021, the CAC, together with other authorities, jointly promulgated the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which became effective on February 15, 2022 and replaces its predecessor regulation. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, critical information infrastructure operators that procure internet products and services, and operators of network platforms conducting data processing activities must be subject to the cybersecurity review if their activities affect or may affect national security. The Cybersecurity Review Measures further stipulates that network platform operators that hold personal information of over one million users shall apply with the Cybersecurity Review Office for a cybersecurity review before any initial public offering at a foreign stock exchange. Given that the Cybersecurity Review Measures were recently promulgated, there are substantial uncertainties as to their interpretation, application, and enforcement. On September 24, 2024, the CAC published the Administrative Regulations for Internet Data Security, or the Draft Data Security Regulations, which became effective on January 1, 2025. The Data Security Regulations provides that data processors conduct data processing activities, which affects or may affect national security, must apply for cybersecurity review. There have been no further clarifications from the authorities as of the date of this annual report as to the standards for determining such activities that “affects or may affect national security.” The Data Security Regulations further stipulates that data processors that hold personal information of over one million users shall clearly define the person in charge of network data security and the network data security management body. Processors of important data, in the event of mergers, divisions, dissolutions, bankruptcies, or other circumstances that may affect the security of important data, shall take measures to ensure the security of network data and report the important data disposal plan, the name or designation and contact information of the receiving party, etc., to the relevant competent department at the provincial level or above. If the competent department is not clear, the report shall be made to the provincial level or above data security work coordination mechanism. Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with the Anti-Monopoly Guidelines for Platforms Economy Sector and other Chinese mainland anti- monopoly laws and regulations may result in governmental investigations or enforcement actions, litigation or claims against us and could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. The Chinese mainland anti-monopoly enforcement agencies have strengthened enforcement under the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law in recent years. On December 28, 2018, the SAMR, issued the Notice on Anti-monopoly Enforcement Authorization, pursuant to which its provincial-level branches are authorized to conduct anti-monopoly enforcement within their respective jurisdictions. On September 11, 2020, the Anti-Monopoly Committee of the State Council issued Anti-monopoly Compliance Guideline for Operators and amended on April 25, 2024, which requires operators to establish anti-monopoly compliance management systems under the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law to manage anti-monopoly compliance risks. On February 7, 2021, the Anti-Monopoly Committee of the State Council published Anti-Monopoly Guidelines for the Platform Economy Sector that specified circumstances where an activity of an internet platform will be identified as monopolistic act as well as concentration filing procedures for business operators, including those involving variable interest entities. On March 12, 2021, the SAMR published several administrative penalty cases about concentration of business operators that violated PRC Anti-Monopoly Law in the internet sector. On December 24, 2021, nine authorities, including the NDRC, jointly issued the Opinions on Promoting the Healthy and Sustainable Development of Platform Economy, which provides that, among others, monopolistic agreements, abuse of dominant market position and illegal concentration of business operators in the field of platform economy will be strictly investigated and punished in accordance with the law. 44 Table of Contents On June 24, 2022, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress issued an amendment of the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law, which increases the fines for illegal concentration of undertakings to “up to 10% of its sales amount in the previous year if the concentration of undertakings has or may have an effect of excluding or limiting competition; or a fine of up to RMB5 million if the concentration of undertakings does not have an effect of excluding or limiting competition.” The amendment also stipulates that if a concentration does not reach the threshold prescribed by the State Council, there is evidence proving the concentration has or may have effect of excluding or limiting competition, the anti-monopoly Law enforcement agency of the State Council may require the undertakings to complete the filings. Where the undertakings fail to complete the filings in accordance with the aforementioned provisions, the anti-monopoly law enforcement agency of the State Council shall conduct an investigation in accordance with the law. The amendment came into effect on August 1, 2022. The Provisions on the Prohibition of Monopoly Agreements were amended in December 2025, with the amendments came into effect on February 1, 2026. The strengthened enforcement of the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law could result in investigations on our acquisition transactions conducted in the past and make our acquisition transactions in the future more difficult due to the prior filing requirement. The Chinese mainland anti-monopoly laws may increase our compliance burden, particularly in the context of the Chinese mainland authorities recently strengthening supervision and enforcement of the PRC Anti-Monopoly Law against internet platforms. There are uncertainties associated with the evolving legislative activities and varied local implementation practices of anti-monopoly and competition laws and regulations in Chinese mainland. Under the amended PRC Anti-Monopoly Law, it will be more difficult to complete the acquisition transaction. It will be costly for us to adjust our business practices in order to comply with these evolving laws, regulations, rules, guidelines and implementations. Any non-compliance or associated inquiries, investigations and other governmental actions may divert significant management time and attention and our financial resources, lead to negative publicity, liabilities or administrative penalties, therefore materially and adversely affect our financial conditions, operations and business prospects. If we are required to take any rectifying or remedial measures or are subject to any penalties, our reputation and business operations may be materially and adversely affected. If we fail to obtain and maintain the requisite licenses and approvals required under the complex regulatory environment applicable to our businesses in Chinese mainland, or if we are required to take compliance actions that are time-consuming or costly, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. The internet and mobile industries in Chinese mainland are highly regulated. We are required to obtain and maintain applicable licenses and approvals from different regulatory authorities in order to provide their current services. Under the current Chinese mainland regulatory scheme, a number of regulatory agencies, including but not limited to, the National Radio and Television Administration, the National Press and Publication Administration, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the MIIT jointly regulate all major aspects of the internet industry, including the mobile internet business. Operators must obtain various government approvals and licenses for their mobile business. We have obtained the ICP licenses for provision of internet information services for our live video service. This license is essential to the operation of our business and is generally subject to regular government review or renewal. However, we cannot assure you that we can successfully renew the license in a timely manner or that it is are sufficient to conduct all of our present or future business. In addition, we cannot assure you that we will be able to secure any additional licenses that we may need to conduct our operations. Failure to complete, obtain or maintain any of the required licenses or approvals has resulted in, and may in the future result in, us being subjected to various penalties, such as confiscation of the net revenues that were generated through the unlicensed internet or mobile activities, the imposition of fines and the discontinuation or restriction of our operations. Any such penalties may disrupt our business operations and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Regulation and censorship of information disseminated over the mobile and internet in Chinese mainland may adversely affect our business and subject us to liability for content posted on our platform. Internet companies in Chinese mainland are subject to a variety of existing and new rules, regulations, policies, and license and permit requirements. In connection with enforcing these rules, regulations, policies and requirements, the government authorities may suspend services by, or revoke licenses of, any internet or mobile content service provider that is deemed to provide illicit or pornographic information or content online or on mobile devices, and such activities may be intensified in connection with any ongoing government campaigns to eliminate prohibited content online. The competent government authorities, including the CAC, the MIIT and the Ministry of Public Security, may crack down on illicit and pornographic information and content in the internet information services industry from time to time. Applicable sanctions, including fines, revocation of online publishing and online video licenses, and criminal prosecution, may be imposed on the provider of such information or content or its responsible officers. 45 Table of Contents We endeavor to eliminate illicit and pornographic information and content from our platform. We have made substantial investments in resources to monitor content that users post on our platform and the way in which our users engage with each other through our platform. Since our inception, we have terminated tens of millions of user accounts because we viewed content generated by those users to be indecent and we terminated a substantial percentage of new user accounts in order to eliminate spam, fictitious accounts and indecent content from our platform. We use a variety of methods to ensure our platform remains a healthy and positive experience for our users, including a designated content management team, licensed third-party software, and our own data analytics software. Although we employ these methods to filter our users and content posted by our users, we cannot be sure that our internal content control efforts will be sufficient to remove all content that may be viewed as indecent or otherwise non-compliant with PRC law and regulations. Government standards and interpretations as to what constitutes illicit and pornographic online information, content or behavior are subject to interpretation and may change. Government standards and interpretations may change in a manner that could render our current monitoring efforts insufficient. The Chinese government has authority in regulating unlawful online activities and, irrespective of our efforts to control the content on our platform, government campaigns and other actions to reduce illicit and pornographic content and activities could subject us to negative press or regulatory challenges and sanctions, including fines, the suspension or revocation of our licenses to operate in Chinese mainland or a ban of our platform, including closure of one or more parts of or our entire business. Further, our senior management could be held criminally liable if we are deemed to be profiting from illicit and pornographic content on our platform. We cannot assure you that our business and operations will be immune from government actions or sanctions in the future. If government actions or sanctions are brought against us, or if there are widespread rumors that government actions or sanctions have been brought against us, our reputation could be harmed, we may lose users, customers or platform partners, our revenues and results of operation may be materially and adversely affected and the price of our ADSs could be dramatically reduced. Adverse changes in economic and political policies of the Chinese mainland government could have a material and adverse effect on overall economic growth in Chinese mainland, which could materially and adversely affect our business. Our revenues are mainly generated in Chinese mainland. Accordingly, our results of operations, financial condition and prospects are influenced by economic, political and legal developments in Chinese mainland. China’s economy has its unique characteristics in many respects, including with respect to the amount of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, control of foreign exchange and allocation of resources. Although Chinese mainland’s economy has grown significantly in the past decade, growth has been uneven, both geographically and among various sectors of the economy. Some of the government measures may benefit the overall Chinese economy, but may have a negative effect on us. For example, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected by government control over capital investments or changes in tax regulations. Some of the stimulus measures designed to boost the Chinese economy may contribute to higher inflation, which could adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition. For example, certain operating costs and expenses, such as employee compensation and office operating expenses, may increase as a result of higher inflation. Any adverse changes in economic conditions in Chinese mainland, in the policies of the Chinese government or in the laws and regulations in Chinese mainland could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of Chinese mainland. Such developments could adversely affect our business and operating results, lead to reduction in demand for our services and adversely affect our competitive position. Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law, we may be classified as a Chinese mainland “resident enterprise,” which could result in unfavorable tax consequences to us and our shareholders and have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and the value of your investment. Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law, which became effective on January 1, 2008, as amended on February 24, 2017 and further amended on December 29, 2018, an enterprise established outside Chinese mainland with “de facto management bodies” within Chinese mainland is considered a “resident enterprise” for Chinese mainland enterprise income tax purposes and is generally subject to a uniform 25% enterprise income tax rate on its worldwide income. In 2009, the State Taxation Administration issued the Notice Regarding the Determination of Chinese-Controlled Overseas Incorporated Enterprises as PRC Tax Resident Enterprise on the Basis of De Facto Management Bodies, or the STA Circular 82, which provides certain specific criteria for determining whether the “de facto management body” of a Chinese mainland-controlled enterprise that is incorporated offshore is located in Chinese mainland. Further to the STA Circular 82, on July 27, 2011, the State Taxation Administration issued the Administrative Measures for Enterprise Income Tax of Chinese-Controlled Offshore Incorporated Resident Enterprises (Trial), or the STA Bulletin 45, to provide more guidance on the implementation of the STA Circular 82; the bulletin became effective on September 1, 2011. The STA Bulletin 45 clarified certain issues in the areas of resident status determination, post-determination administration and competent tax authorities’ procedures. 46 Table of Contents According to the STA Circular 82, an offshore incorporated enterprise controlled by a Chinese mainland enterprise or a Chinese mainland enterprise group will be considered as a Chinese mainland tax resident enterprise by virtue of having its “de facto management body” in Chinese mainland and will be subject to Chinese mainland enterprise income tax on its worldwide income only if all of the following conditions are met: (a) the senior management and core management departments in charge of its daily operations function have their presence mainly in Chinese mainland; (b) its financial and human resources decisions are subject to determination or approval by persons or bodies in Chinese mainland; (c) its major assets, accounting books, company seals, and minutes and files of its board and shareholders’ meetings are located or kept in Chinese mainland; and (d) more than half of the enterprise’s directors or senior management with voting rights habitually reside in Chinese mainland. The STA Bulletin 45 specifies that when provided with a copy of Chinese tax resident determination certificate from a resident Chinese controlled offshore incorporated enterprise, the payer should not withhold 10% income tax when paying the Chinese-sourced dividends, interest, royalties, among others, to the Chinese controlled offshore incorporated enterprise. Although the STA Circular 82 and the STA Bulletin 45 only apply to offshore incorporated enterprises controlled by Chinese mainland enterprises or Chinese mainland enterprise groups and not those controlled by Chinese mainland individuals or foreigners, the determination criteria set forth therein may reflect the State Taxation Administration’s general position on how the term “de facto management body” could be applied in determining the tax resident status of offshore enterprises, regardless of whether they are controlled by Chinese mainland enterprises, individuals or foreigners. If the Chinese mainland tax authorities determine that we or any of our non-Chinese mainland subsidiaries is a Chinese mainland resident enterprise for Chinese mainland enterprise income tax purposes, then we or any such non-Chinese mainland subsidiary could be subject to Chinese mainland tax at a rate of 25% on its world-wide income, which could materially reduce our net income. In addition, we will also be subject to Chinese mainland enterprise income tax reporting obligations. If the Chinese mainland tax authorities determine that our company is a Chinese mainland resident enterprise for Chinese mainland enterprise income tax purposes, gains realized on the sale or other disposition of ADSs or ordinary shares may be subject to Chinese mainland tax, at a rate of 10% in the case of non-Chinese mainland enterprise holders or 20% in the case of non-Chinese mainland individual holders, if such gains are deemed to be from Chinese mainland sources. In addition, any payments of dividends or interest on the ADSs, ordinary shares may be subject to Chinese mainland withholding tax at a rate of 10% in the case of non-Chinese mainland enterprise holders or 20% in the case of non-Chinese mainland individual holders, if such dividends or interest payments are deemed to be from Chinese mainland sources. Any Chinese mainland tax liability may be reduced under applicable tax treaties. However, it is unclear whether if we are considered a Chinese mainland resident enterprise, holders of our ADSs, ordinary shares will be able to claim the benefit of income tax treaties between Chinese mainland and other countries. Further, if we are required to withhold Chinese mainland tax from interest payments on the ADSs, we may be required, subject to certain exceptions, to pay additional amounts as will result in receipt by holders of ADSs of such amounts as would have been received had no such withholding been required. The requirement to pay additional amounts will increase the cost of servicing interest payments on the ADSs and could have an adverse effect on our financial condition. If our Chinese mainland subsidiaries declare and distribute dividends to their respective offshore parent companies, we will be required to pay more taxes, which could have a material and adverse effect on our result of operations. Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and related regulations, dividends, interests, rent or royalties payable by a foreign-invested enterprise, such as our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, to any of its foreign non-resident enterprise investors, and proceeds from any such foreign enterprise investor’s disposition of assets (after deducting the net value of such assets) are subject to a 10% withholding tax, unless the foreign enterprise investor’s jurisdiction of incorporation has a tax treaty with Chinese mainland that provides for a reduced rate of withholding tax. The Cayman Islands does not have such a tax treaty with Chinese mainland. 47 Table of Contents In 2024, dividends paid by our wholly foreign-owned subsidiary in the Chinese mainland to its offshore parent company in Hong Kong were subject to a preferential withholding tax rate of 5% pursuant to the Arrangement between the PRC and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with respect to Taxes on Income. In 2025, the relevant tax authority reassessed such qualification and required us to apply the statutory withholding tax rate of 10% for the dividends distributed since 2024, instead of the previously applied preferential rate of 5%. Beijing Momo Information Technology Co., Ltd. paid RMB180.0 million, RMB200.0 million and RMB480.0 million (US$68.6 million) in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively, withholding tax when it paid special dividends to its parent company, Momo Technology HK Company Limited, including additional tax payments we made in 2025 to settle the difference resulting from the application of the higher withholding tax rate of 10%. In addition, we have accrued withholding tax at a rate of 10% on accumulated retained earnings as of December 31, 2025 generated by Beijing Momo Information Technology Co., Ltd. that are expected to be distributed to its offshore parent company in the foreseeable future. As a result of the above, we were not eligible for the preferential withholding tax rate, and our dividend distributions were subject to a withholding tax rate of 10%. We cannot assure you that we will be able to qualify for the preferential withholding tax rate in the future. If we are unable to do so, our dividend distributions from Beijing Momo Information Technology Co., Ltd. to Momo Technology HK Company Limited will continue to be subject to a withholding tax rate of 10%, which will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. We face uncertainty with respect to indirect transfer of equity interests in Chinese mainland resident enterprises by their non-Chinese mainland holding companies. We face uncertainties regarding the reporting on and consequences of previous private equity financing transactions involving the transfer and exchange of shares in our company by non-resident investors. On April 30, 2009, the Ministry of Finance and the State Taxation Administration jointly issued the Notice on Issues Concerning Process of Enterprise Income Tax in Enterprise Restructuring Business, or the Circular 59, to enhance the scrutiny over the direct or indirect transfer of equity interests in a Chinese mainland resident enterprise by a non-resident enterprise. On February 3, 2015, the State Taxation Administration issued a Public Notice on Several Issues Relating to Enterprise Income Tax on Transfer of Assets between Non-resident Enterprises, or the Public Notice 7, which extends its tax jurisdiction to capture not only indirect transfers but also transactions involving transfer of immovable property in Chinese mainland and assets held under the establishment and place in Chinese mainland of a foreign company through the offshore transfer of a foreign intermediate holding company. The Public Notice 7 also addresses the transfer of the equity interest in a foreign intermediate holding company widely. In addition, the Public Notice 7 provides clear criteria on how to assess reasonable commercial purposes and introduces safe harbor scenarios applicable to internal group restructurings. However, it also brings challenges to both the foreign transferor and transferee (or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer) of the indirect transfers as they have to make self-assessment on whether the transaction should be subject to Chinese mainland tax and to file or withhold the Chinese mainland tax accordingly. In October 2017, the State Taxation Administration issued the Announcement of the State Administration of Taxation on Issues Concerning the Withholding of Non-resident Enterprise Income Tax at Source, or the Bulletin 37, which came into effect in December 2017 and was amended in June 2018. The Bulletin 37 further clarifies the practice and procedures of the withholding of non-resident enterprise income tax. Where a non-resident enterprise transfers taxable assets indirectly by disposing of the equity interests of an overseas holding company, which constitutes an indirect transfer, the non-resident enterprise as either the transferor or the transferee, or the Chinese mainland entity that directly owns the taxable assets, may report such indirect transfer to the competent tax authority. Where non-resident investors were involved in our private equity financing, if such transactions were determined by the tax authorities to lack reasonable commercial purpose, we and our non-resident investors may become at risk of being taxed under the Bulletin 37 and the Public Notice 7 and may be required to expend valuable resources to comply with the Bulletin 37 and the Public Notice 7 or to establish that we should not be taxed under the Bulletin 37 and the Public Notice 7, which may have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations or the non-resident investors’ investments in us. The Chinese mainland tax authorities have the discretion under the Circular 59, the Bulletin 37 and the Public Notice 7 to make adjustments to the taxable capital gains based on the difference between the fair value of the equity interests transferred and the cost of investment. We may pursue acquisitions in the future that may involve complex corporate structures. If we are considered a non-resident enterprise under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and if the Chinese mainland tax authorities make adjustments to the taxable income of the transactions under the Circular 59, the Bulletin 37 and the Public Notice 7, our income tax costs associated with such potential acquisitions will be increased, which may have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. 48 Table of Contents Chinese mainland regulations relating to offshore investment activities by Chinese mainland residents may limit our Chinese mainland subsidiaries’ ability to increase its registered capital or distribute profits to us or otherwise expose us to liability and penalties under PRC law. SAFE promulgated the Circular on Relevant Issues Relating to Foreign Exchange Control on Domestic Resident’s Offshore Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, in July 2014 that requires Chinese mainland residents or entities to register with SAFE or its local branch in connection with their establishment or control of an offshore entity established for the purpose of overseas investment or financing. In addition, such Chinese mainland residents or entities must update their SAFE registrations when the offshore special purpose vehicle undergoes material events relating to any change of basic information (including change of such Chinese mainland citizens or residents, name and operation term), increases or decreases in investment amount, transfers or exchanges of shares, or mergers or divisions. If our shareholders who are Chinese mainland residents or entities do not complete their registration with the local SAFE branches, our Chinese mainland subsidiaries may be prohibited from distributing their profits and proceeds from any reduction in capital, share transfer or liquidation to us, and we may be restricted in our ability to contribute additional capital to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries. Moreover, failure to comply with SAFE registration described above could result in liability under PRC laws for evasion of applicable foreign exchange restrictions. We cannot compel all of our beneficial owners to comply with SAFE registration requirements. As a result, we cannot assure you that all of our shareholders or beneficial owners who are Chinese mainland residents or entities have complied with, and will in the future make or obtain any applicable registrations or approvals required by, SAFE regulations. Failure by such shareholders or beneficial owners to comply with SAFE regulations, or failure by us to amend the foreign exchange registrations of our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, could subject us to fines or legal sanctions, restrict our overseas or cross-border investment activities, limit our subsidiaries’ ability to make distributions or pay dividends or affect our ownership structure, which could adversely affect our business and prospects. Failure to comply with Chinese mainland regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee stock ownership plans or share option plans may subject the Chinese mainland plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions. In February 2012, SAFE promulgated the Notices on Issues Concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plans of Overseas Publicly-Listed Companies, or the Circular 7. Under the Circular 7 and other relevant rules and regulations, Chinese mainland residents who participate in stock incentive plan in an overseas publicly listed company are required to register with SAFE or its local branches and complete certain other procedures. Participants of a stock incentive plan who are Chinese mainland residents must retain a qualified Chinese mainland agent, which could be a Chinese mainland subsidiary of such overseas publicly listed company or another qualified institution selected by such Chinese mainland subsidiary, to conduct SAFE registration and other procedures with respect to the stock incentive plan on behalf of its participants. Such participants must also retain an overseas entrusted institution to handle matters in connection with their exercise of stock options, the purchase and sale of corresponding stocks or interests and fund transfers. In addition, the Chinese mainland agent is required to amend SAFE registration with respect to the stock incentive plan if there is any material change to the stock incentive plan, the Chinese mainland agent or the overseas entrusted institution or other material changes. We and our Chinese mainland employees who have been granted stock options are subject to these regulations. Failure of our Chinese mainland stock option holders to complete their SAFE registrations may subject these Chinese mainland residents to fines and legal sanctions and may also limit our ability to contribute additional capital into our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, limit our Chinese mainland subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends to us, or otherwise materially adversely affect our business. 49 Table of Contents Chinese mainland regulation of loans to, and direct investment in, Chinese mainland entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may restrict or prevent us from using offshore funds to make loans to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries, or to make additional capital contributions to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries. We are an offshore holding company conducting our operations in Chinese mainland through our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries. We may make loans to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and the VIEs and their subsidiaries, or we may make additional capital contributions to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries, or we may establish new Chinese mainland subsidiaries and make capital contributions to these new Chinese mainland subsidiaries, or we may acquire offshore entities with business operations in Chinese mainland in an offshore transaction. Most of these ways are subject to Chinese mainland regulations and approvals. For example, loans from us to our wholly-owned Chinese mainland subsidiaries to finance their activities cannot exceed statutory limits and must be registered with the local counterpart of SAFE. If we decide to finance our wholly-owned Chinese mainland subsidiaries by means of capital contributions, these capital contributions must be filed with the local counterpart of the SAMR. Due to the restrictions imposed on loans in foreign currencies extended to any Chinese mainland domestic companies, we are not likely to make such loans to Beijing Momo, which is Chinese mainland domestic company. Further, we are not likely to finance the activities of Beijing Momo by means of capital contributions due to regulatory restrictions relating to foreign investment in Chinese mainland domestic enterprises engaged in mobile internet services and related businesses. On March 30, 2015, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Reforming the Management Approach Regarding the Foreign Exchange Capital Settlement of Foreign-Invested Enterprises, or SAFE Circular 19, which became effective on June 1, 2015. SAFE Circular 19 provides that, among other things, the foreign-invested company may convert the foreign currency in its capital account into RMB on a “at will” basis and the RMB funds so converted can be used for equity investments provided that equity investment is included in the business scope of such foreign-invested company. On June 9, 2016, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Reforming and Regulating the Administrative Policy on Settlement of Foreign Exchange of Capital Account, or SAFE Circular 16, which became effective on June 9, 2016. According to SAFE Circular 16, the foreign exchange capital of foreign-invested enterprises and foreign debt and funds raised through offshore listings may be settled on a discretionary basis, and can be settled at banks. The proportion of such discretionary settlement is temporarily determined as 100%. The RMB converted from foreign exchange shall be kept in a designated account, and if a domestic enterprise needs to make further payment from such account, it still must provide supporting documents and go through the review process with the banks. On October 23, 2019, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Further Promoting the Facilitation of Cross-border Trade and Investment, or SAFE Circular 28, which was amended by the Circular on Further Deepening the Reform to Facilitate Cross-border Trade and Investment promulgated by SAFE on December 4, 2023. In September 2025, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Matters Related to Deepening the Reform of Foreign Exchange Administration for Cross-border Investment and Financing (SAFE Circular 43), which became effective on September 15, 2025. On the basis of continuing to allow investment foreign-invested enterprises (including foreign investment companies, foreign-funded venture capital enterprises and foreign-funded equity investment enterprises) to use the registered capital for domestic equity investment in accordance with the laws and regulations, SAFE Circular 28 canceled the restriction on the non-investment foreign-invested enterprises and allows the non-investment foreign-invested enterprises (like Beijing Momo IT) to use the registered capital for domestic equity investment under the premise of not violating the existing Negative List and the authenticity and compliance of the domestic equity investment projects. SAFE Circular 28 further clarifies the two ways of using the foreign currency registered capital of non-investment foreign-invested enterprises for domestic equity investment, i.e., by way of transfer of the foreign currency registered capital in its original currency and by way of foreign exchange settlement of the foreign currency registered capital. On October 23, 2019, the same date, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Reducing Foreign Exchange Accounts, or SAFE Circular 29, which became effective on March 2, 2020. The Appendix B of SAFE Circular 29 provides operational guidance for SAFE Circular 28. SAFE Circular 29 further specifies that the domestic equity investment set forth in Circular 28 is not limited to direct investment in a domestic enterprise but also includes equity investment conducted in the form of “equity transfer.” According to the Circular on Improving Administration of Foreign Exchange to Support the Development of Foreign-related Business, or SAFE Circular 8, issued by SAFE on April 10, 2020, eligible enterprises are allowed to make domestic payments by using their capital funds, foreign credits and the income under capital accounts of overseas listing without submitting the evidentiary materials concerning authenticity of such capital to banks in advance, provided that their capital use is authentic and in compliance with administrative regulations on the use of income under capital accounts. The bank in charge shall conduct spot checking in accordance with the requirements. Although SAFE Circular 19, SAFE Circular 16, SAFE Circular 28, SAFE Circular 29 and SAFE Circular 8 loosed the regulatory restrictions but there is still uncertainty regarding how SAFE and banks will interpret and implement these regulations and whether SAFE or other government authorities will continue to promulgate new regulations that may substantially influence our ability to transfer the net proceeds from our overseas offerings to our Chinese mainland subsidiaries and to convert such proceeds into Renminbi, which may adversely impact our ability to fund and expand our business in Chinese mainland. 50 Table of Contents Litigation and negative publicity surrounding Chinese mainland-based companies listed in the U.S. may result in increased regulatory scrutiny of us and negatively impact the trading price of the ADSs and could have a material adverse effect upon our business, including our results of operations, financial condition, cash flows and prospects. We believe that litigation and negative publicity surrounding companies with operations in Chinese mainland that are listed in the U.S. have negatively impacted stock prices for such companies. Various equity-based research organizations have published reports on Chinese mainland-based companies after examining, among other things, their corporate governance practices, related party transactions, sales practices and financial statements that have led to special investigations and stock suspensions on national exchanges. Any similar scrutiny of us, regardless of its lack of merit, could result in a diversion of management resources and energy, potential costs to defend ourselves against rumors, decreases and volatility in the ADS trading price, and increased directors and officers insurance premiums and could have a material adverse effect upon our business, including our results of operations, financial condition, cash flows and prospects. Fluctuations in exchange rates could have a material and adverse effect on our results of operations and the value of your investment. The conversion of RMB into foreign currencies, including U.S. dollars, is based on rates set by the People’s Bank of China. The RMB has fluctuated against the U.S. dollar, at times significantly and unpredictably. The value of RMB against the U.S. dollar and other currencies is affected by changes in Chinese mainland’s political and economic conditions and by Chinese mainland’s foreign exchange policies, among other things. We cannot assure you that RMB will not appreciate or depreciate significantly in value against the U.S. dollar in the future. It is difficult to predict how market forces or Chinese mainland or U.S. government policy may impact the exchange rate between RMB and the U.S. dollar in the future. Any significant appreciation or depreciation of RMB may materially and adversely affect our revenues, earnings and financial position, and the value of, and any dividends payable on, our ADSs in U.S. dollars. For example, to the extent that we need to convert U.S. dollars into RMB for capital expenditures and working capital and other business purposes, appreciation of RMB against the U.S. dollar would have an adverse effect on the RMB amount we would receive from the conversion. Conversely, if we decide to convert RMB into U.S. dollars for the purpose of making payments for dividends on our ordinary shares or ADSs, strategic acquisitions or investments or other business purposes, appreciation of the U.S. dollar against the RMB would have a negative effect on the U.S. dollar amount available to us. In addition, a significant depreciation of the RMB against the U.S. dollar may significantly reduce the U.S. dollar equivalent of our earnings, which in turn could adversely affect the price of our ADSs. Very limited hedging options are available in Chinese mainland to reduce our exposure to exchange rate fluctuations. In 2025, we have not entered into any direct hedging transactions in an effort to reduce our exposure to foreign currency exchange risk. While we may decide to enter into hedging transactions in the future, the availability and effectiveness of these hedges may be limited and we may not be able to adequately hedge our exposure or at all. In addition, our currency exchange losses may be magnified by Chinese mainland exchange control regulations that restrict our ability to convert RMB into foreign currency. As a result, fluctuations in exchange rates may have a material adverse effect on your investment. Our leased property interests may be defective and our right to lease the properties affected by such defects may be challenged, which could cause significant disruption to our business. Under PRC laws, all lease agreements are required to be registered with the local housing authorities. We presently lease 9 premises in Chinese mainland, and all the landlords of these premises have completed the registration of their ownership rights, but none of the landlords of these premises have completed the registration of our lease with the government authority. 51 Table of Contents Failure to complete these required registrations may expose our landlords, lessors and us to potential monetary fines. If these registrations are not obtained in a timely manner or at all, we may be subject to monetary fines or may have to relocate our offices and incur the associated losses. Risks Related to Our ADSs The trading price of our ADSs is likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors. The price of our ADSs has been and is likely to continue to be volatile and could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, like the performance and fluctuation of the market prices of other companies with business operations located mainly in Chinese mainland that have listed their securities in the United States. A number of Chinese companies have listed their securities on U.S. stock markets. The securities of many of these companies have experienced significant volatility. The trading performances of these Chinese companies’ securities after their offerings may affect the attitudes of investors toward Chinese companies listed in the United States in general and consequently may impact the trading performance of our ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance. Furthermore, the stock market in general has experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of companies like ours. These broad market and industry fluctuations may adversely affect the market price of our ADSs. Volatility or a lack of positive performance in our ADS price may also adversely affect our ability to retain key employees, most of whom have been granted options or other equity incentives. In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume for our ADSs may be highly volatile for factors specific to our own operations, including the following: • variations in our revenues, earnings, cash flow and data related to our user base or user engagement; • announcements of new investments, acquisitions, strategic partnerships or joint ventures by us or our competitors; • announcements of new products, services and expansions by us or our competitors; • changes in financial estimates by securities analysts; • detrimental adverse publicity about us, our services or our industry; • additions or departures of key personnel; • release of lock-up or other transfer restrictions on our outstanding equity securities or sales of additional equity securities; and • potential litigation or regulatory investigations. Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the volume and price at which our ADSs will trade. In the past, shareholders of public companies have often brought securities class action suits against those companies following periods of instability in the market price of their securities. Any such class action suit, whether or not successful, could harm our reputation and restrict our ability to raise capital in the future. In addition, if a claim is successfully made against us, we may be required to pay significant damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. We believe that we were a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for U.S. federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2025, which could result in significant adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. Holders of our ADSs or ordinary shares. Under United States federal income tax law, we will be classified as a PFIC for any taxable year if either (i) 75% or more of our gross income for the taxable year is “passive” income or (ii) 50% or more of the value of our assets (generally determined on the basis of a quarterly average) is attributable to assets that produce or are held for the production of passive income, or the asset test. Although the law in this regard is unclear, we treat the VIEs (including their subsidiaries) as being owned by us for U.S. federal income tax purposes, not only because we exercise effective control over the operation of these entities but also because we are entitled to substantially all of their economic benefits, and, as a result, we consolidate their results of operations in the consolidated U.S. GAAP financial statements. 52 Table of Contents Based upon the nature and composition of our assets (in particular, the retention of substantial amounts of cash, deposits and investments), and the market price of our ADSs, we believe that we were a PFIC for United States federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2025, and we will likely be a PFIC for our current taxable year unless the market price of our ADSs increases and/or we invest a substantial amount of the cash and other passive assets we hold in assets that produce or are held for the production of active income. Our PFIC classification is substantially driven by the relationship between the current market price of our ADSs and the significant net cash position on our balance sheet, rather than by the nature of our underlying business operations, which remain predominantly active in the social entertainment and dating sectors. We have historically returned a substantial portion of our annual free operating cash flow to shareholders through share repurchases and cash dividends. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, we returned an aggregate of US$136.6 million, US$98.9 million and US$47.9 million, respectively, in cash dividends, and repurchased US$29.4 million, US$166.3 million and US$104.6 million, respectively, in ordinary shares. We continue to evaluate opportunities to deploy capital into operating assets, including through strategic acquisitions such as our 2025 acquisitions in Japan and Europe, and we also continue to evaluate the appropriate level of capital returns to shareholders. However, there can be no assurance that such measures will be sufficient to cause us to cease being a PFIC in any particular year, as our PFIC status depends in significant part on the market price of our ADSs, which is beyond our control. If we are classified as a PFIC, a U.S. Holder (as defined in “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—United States Federal Income Tax Considerations”) will generally be subject to reporting requirements and may incur significantly increased U.S. federal income tax on gain recognized on the sale or other disposition of the ADSs or ordinary shares and on the receipt of distributions on the ADSs or ordinary shares to the extent such gain or distribution is treated as an “excess distribution” under the U.S. federal income tax rules. Further, if we are a PFIC for any year during which a U.S. Holder held our ADSs or ordinary shares, we generally would continue to be treated as a PFIC for all succeeding years during which such U.S. Holder held our ADSs or ordinary shares. Each U.S. Holder is urged to consult its tax advisor concerning the U.S. federal income tax considerations of holding and disposing of ADSs or ordinary shares if we are or become classified as a PFIC. For more information see “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—United States Federal Income Tax Considerations—Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.” If we are deemed to be an investment company under the Investment Company Act of 1940, applicable restrictions could have a material adverse effect on our business and the price of our ADSs and Class A ordinary shares. We are not an “investment company” and do not intend to become registered as an “investment company” under Section 3(a) of the Investment Company Act of 1940, or the 1940 Act, because our primary business is online social networking. Our status under the 1940 Act depends in part on legal theories with respect to certain VIEs that have not been endorsed by the SEC or United States courts. Generally, a company is an “investment company” if it is or holds itself out as being engaged primarily in the business of investing, reinvesting or trading in securities or owns or proposes to own investment securities having a value exceeding 40% of the value of its total assets (exclusive of U.S. government securities and cash items) on an unconsolidated basis, unless an exception, exemption or safe harbor applies. As a foreign private issuer, we would not be eligible to register under the 1940 Act, and if a sufficient amount of our assets are deemed to be “investment securities” within the meaning of the 1940 Act, we would either have to obtain exemptive relief from the SEC, modify our contractual rights or dispose of investments in order to fall outside the definition of an investment company. Additionally, we may have to forego potential future acquisitions of interests in companies that may be deemed to be investment securities within the meaning of the 1940 Act. Failure to avoid being deemed an investment company under the 1940 Act coupled with our inability as a foreign private issuer to register under the 1940 Act could make us unable to comply with our reporting obligations as a public company in the United States, and we could be delisted from the Nasdaq, which would have a material adverse effect on the liquidity and value of our ADSs and Class A ordinary shares. We would also be unable to raise capital through the sale of securities in the United States or to conduct business in the United States. 53 Table of Contents If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they adversely change their recommendations regarding our ADSs, the market price for our ADSs and trading volume could decline. The trading market for our ADSs will be influenced by research or reports that industry or securities analysts publish about our business. If one or more analysts who cover us downgrade our ADSs, the market price for our ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease to cover us or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which in turn could cause the market price or trading volume for our ADSs to decline. Substantial future sales or the expectation of substantial sales of our ADSs in the public market could cause the price of our ADSs to decline. Sales of our ADSs in the public market, or the perception that these sales could occur, could cause the market price of our ADSs to decline. Such sales also might make it more difficult for us to sell equity or equity-related securities in the future at a time and price that we deem appropriate. If any existing shareholder or shareholders sell a substantial amount of ADSs, the prevailing market price for our ADSs could be adversely affected. In addition, if we pay for our future acquisitions in whole or in part with additionally issued ordinary shares, your ownership interests in our company would be diluted and this, in turn, could have a material and adverse effect on the price of our ADSs. Because we may not continue to pay dividends, you may need to rely on price appreciation of our ADSs for return on your investment. Although we have declared special cash dividends to holders of our ordinary shares every year since 2019, we do not have an official policy of paying annual dividends. We may not continue to pay dividends in the future. Therefore, you may need to rely on price appreciation of our ADSs as the sole source for return on your investment. Our board of directors has complete discretion as to whether to distribute dividends subject to our memorandum and articles of association and certain restrictions under Cayman Islands law. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our directors. Even if our board of directors decides to declare and pay dividends, the timing, amount and form of future dividends, if any, will depend on, among other things, our future results of operations and cash flow, our capital requirements and surplus, the amount of distributions, if any, received by us from our subsidiaries, our financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Accordingly, the return on your investment in our ADSs will likely depend entirely upon any future price appreciation of our ADSs. There is no guarantee that our ADSs will appreciate in value or even maintain the price at which you purchased the ADSs. You may not realize a return on your investment in our ADSs and you may even lose your entire investment in our ADSs. Your interests may not always align with those of our shareholders, including our principal shareholder. You are also reminded that your interests may not always align with those of other shareholders, including our principal shareholders. Mr. Yan Tang, our co-founder, executive chairman and chief executive officer, has considerable influence over important corporate matters. We have adopted a dual-class voting structure in which our ordinary shares consist of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares. Holders of Class A ordinary shares are entitled to one vote per share in respect of matters requiring the votes of shareholders, while holders of Class B ordinary shares are entitled to ten votes per share. Each Class B ordinary share is convertible into one Class A ordinary share at any time by the holder thereof, while Class A ordinary shares are not convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances. Due to the disparate voting powers associated with our two classes of ordinary shares, Mr. Tang beneficially owned a total of 79.1% of the aggregate voting power of our company as of March 31, 2026. As a result of his majority voting power, Mr. Tang has considerable influence over matters such as electing directors and approving material mergers, acquisitions or other business combination transactions. This concentrated control will limit the ability of holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs to influence corporate matters and could also discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions, which could have the effect of depriving the holders of our Class A ordinary shares and our ADSs of the opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over the prevailing market price. We cannot assure you that actions taken by our principal shareholders will completely align with your interests, or that any conflicts of interest will be resolved in a way beneficial to you. 54 Table of Contents Our memorandum and articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could have a material adverse effect on the rights of holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs. Our currently effective second amended and restated memorandum and articles of association contain provisions to limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders of an opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over prevailing market prices by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transaction. Our dual-class voting structure gives disproportionate voting power to the Class B ordinary shares held by Gallant Future Holdings Limited and New Heritage Global Limited, both of which are wholly-owned by a family trust controlled by Yan Tang, our co-founder, executive chairman and chief executive officer. In addition, our board of directors has the authority, without further action by our shareholders, to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to fix their designations, powers, preferences, privileges, and relative participating, optional or special rights and the qualifications, limitations or restrictions, including dividend rights, conversion rights, voting rights, terms of redemption and liquidation preferences, any or all of which may be greater than the rights associated with our Class A ordinary shares, in the form of ADS or otherwise. Preferred shares could be issued quickly with terms calculated to delay or prevent a change in control of our company or make removal of management more difficult. If our board of directors decides to issue preferred shares, the price of our ADSs may fall and the voting and other rights of the holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may be materially and adversely affected. You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are registered by way of continuation under Cayman Islands law. We are an exempted company limited by shares registered under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act (As Revised) of the Cayman Islands, or the Companies Act, and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against the directors, actions by minority shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, with respect to Cayman Islands companies, plaintiffs may face special obstacles, including but not limited to those relating to jurisdiction and standing, in attempting to assert derivative claims in state or federal courts of the United States. Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like ours have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records (except for our memorandum and articles of association, our register of mortgages and charges and special resolutions of our shareholders) or to obtain copies of register of members of these companies. Under Cayman Islands law, the names of current directors can be obtained from a search conducted at the Registrar of Companies in the Cayman Islands. Our directors have discretion under our articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest. As a result of all of the above, shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States. 55 Table of Contents Certain judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable. We are a Cayman Islands exempted company and most of our assets are located outside of the United States. Substantially all of our current operations are conducted in Chinese mainland. In addition, a majority of our current directors and officers are nationals and residents of countries other than the United States. Most of the assets of these persons are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for you to effect service of process within the United States upon us or these persons or to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that you believe that your rights have been infringed under the U.S. federal securities laws or otherwise. Even if you are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands and of Chinese mainland may render you unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers. There is no statutory enforcement in the Cayman Islands of judgments obtained in the federal or state courts of the United States (and the Cayman Islands are not a party to any treaties for the reciprocal enforcement or recognition of such judgments), a judgment obtained in such jurisdiction will be recognized and enforced in the courts of the Cayman Islands at common law, without any re-examination of the merits of the underlying dispute, by an action commenced on the foreign judgment debt in the Grand Court of the Cayman Islands, provided such judgment (a) is given by a foreign court of competent jurisdiction, (b) imposes on the judgment debtor a liability to pay a liquidated sum for which the judgment has been given, (c) is final, (d) is not in respect of taxes, a fine or a penalty, (e) is not inconsistent with a Cayman Islands judgment in respect of the same matter, and (f) is not impeachable on the grounds of fraud and was not obtained in a manner and is not of a kind the enforcement of which is contrary to natural justice or the public policy of the Cayman Islands. However, the Cayman Islands courts are unlikely to enforce a judgment obtained from the U.S. courts under civil liability provisions of the U.S. federal securities law if such judgment is determined by the courts of the Cayman Islands to give rise to obligations to make payments that are penal or punitive in nature. Because such a determination has not yet been made by a court of the Cayman Islands, it is uncertain whether such civil liability judgments from U.S. courts would be enforceable in the Cayman Islands. We are a foreign private issuer within the meaning of the rules under the Exchange Act, and as such we are exempt from certain provisions applicable to United States domestic public companies. Because we are a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities rules and regulations in the United States that are applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, including: • the rules under the Exchange Act requiring the filing of quarterly reports on Form 10-Q or current reports on Form 8-K with the SEC; • the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the solicitation of proxies, consents, or authorizations in respect of a security registered under the Exchange Act; • the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the liability for insiders who profit from trades made in a short period of time; • the selective disclosure rules by issuers of material nonpublic information under Regulation FD; and • certain audit committee independence requirements in Rule 10A-3 of the Exchange Act. We are required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. In addition, we intend to publish our results on a quarterly basis through press releases, distributed pursuant to the rules and regulations of the Nasdaq Global Select Market. Press releases relating to financial results and material events will also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC will be less extensive and less timely compared to that required to be filed with the SEC by U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information, which would be made available to you, were you investing in a U.S. domestic issuer. As a Cayman Islands company listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, we are subject to the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance listing standards. However, Nasdaq Global Select Market rules permit a foreign private issuer like us to follow the corporate governance practices of its home country. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, may differ significantly from the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance listing standards. We followed our home country practice and did not hold an annual meeting of shareholders in 2025. In addition, we currently follow our home country practice and have a two-person audit committee. To the extent that we choose to utilize the home country exemption for corporate governance matters, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would under the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance listing standards applicable to U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information, which would be made available to you, were you investing in a U.S. domestic issuer. We are a “controlled company” within the meaning of the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules and, as a result, may rely on certain exemptions from certain corporate governance requirements that provide protection to shareholders of other companies. We are a “controlled company” as defined under the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules because Yan Tang, our co-founder, executive chairman and chief executive officer, beneficially owns more than 50% of our total voting power. For so long as we remain a controlled company under that definition, we are permitted to elect to rely, and may rely, on certain exemptions from corporate governance rules. Our board of directors is currently not composed of a majority of independent directors. As a result, you may not have the same protection afforded to shareholders of companies that are subject to these corporate governance requirements. 56 Table of Contents The voting rights of holders of ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement, and you may not be able to exercise your right to vote your underlying Class A ordinary shares. As a holder of our ADSs, you will only be able to exercise the voting rights with respect to the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you must vote by giving voting instructions to the depositary. Upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with these instructions. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs unless you register such underlying Class A ordinary shares in your own name. Under our currently effective second amended and restated memorandum and articles of association, the minimum notice period required for convening a general meeting is 10 days, exclusive of the day on which notice is given and the day of the meeting. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice to register the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in your own name to allow you to vote with respect to any specific matter. If we ask for your instructions, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you. We cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to vote and you may have no legal remedy if the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs are not voted as you requested. The depositary for our ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs if you do not instruct the depositary to vote your shares, except in limited circumstances, which could adversely affect your interests. Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, if you do not instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs, the depositary will give us a discretionary proxy to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs at shareholders’ meetings unless: • we have failed to timely provide the depositary with notice of meeting and related voting materials; • we have instructed the depositary that we do not wish a discretionary proxy to be given; • we have informed the depositary that there is substantial opposition as to a matter to be voted on at the meeting; • a matter to be voted on at the meeting would have a material adverse impact on shareholders; or • the voting at the meeting is to be made on a show of hands. The effect of this discretionary proxy is that if you do not instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs, you cannot prevent the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs from being voted, except under the circumstances described above. This may make it more difficult for holders of ADSs to influence the management of our company. Holders of our Class A ordinary shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy. You may not receive dividends or other distributions on our Class A ordinary shares and you may not receive any value for them, if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to you. The depositary of our ADSs has agreed to pay to you the cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on Class A ordinary shares or other deposited securities underlying our ADSs, after deducting its fees and expenses. You will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of Class A ordinary shares your ADSs represent. However, the depositary is not responsible if it decides that it is unlawful or impractical to make a distribution available to any holders of ADSs. For example, it would be unlawful to make a distribution to a holder of ADSs if it consists of securities that require registration under the Securities Act but that are not properly registered or distributed under an applicable exemption from registration. The depositary may also determine that it is not feasible to distribute certain property through the mail. Additionally, the value of certain distributions may be less than the cost of mailing them. In these cases, the depositary may determine not to distribute such property. We have no obligation to register under U.S. securities laws any ADSs, ordinary shares, rights or other securities received through such distributions. We also have no obligation to take any other action to permit the distribution of ADSs, ordinary shares, rights or anything else to holders of ADSs. This means that you may not receive distributions we make on our Class A ordinary shares or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical for us to make them available to you. These restrictions may cause a material decline in the value of our ADSs. 57 Table of Contents You may experience dilution of your holdings due to inability to participate in rights offerings. We may, from time to time, distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire securities. Under the deposit agreement, the depositary will not distribute rights to holders of ADSs unless the distribution and sale of rights and the securities to which these rights relate are either exempt from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of ADSs, or are registered under the provisions of the Securities Act. The depositary may, but is not required to, attempt to sell these undistributed rights to third parties, and may allow the rights to lapse. We may be unable to establish an exemption from registration under the Securities Act, and we are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to these rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to have a registration statement declared effective. Accordingly, holders of ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution of their holdings as a result. You may be subject to limitations on transfer of your ADSs. Your ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may close its books from time to time for a number of reasons, including in connection with corporate events such as a rights offering, during which time the depositary needs to maintain an exact number of ADS holders on its books for a specified period. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of our ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary thinks it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason.