Investors in the ADSs are not purchasing equity securities of our subsidiaries that have substantive business operations in China, but instead are purchasing equity securities of a Cayman Islands holding company, which primarily operates its business in China through its PRC subsidiaries. Our corporate structure involves unique risks to investors in the ADSs. See “—3.D. Risk Factor—Risks Relating to Our Corporate Structure” for a detailed discussion.
Historically, we, through the Beijing WFOE, entered into a series of contractual arrangements with the Former VIE as well as its shareholders so that we can hold certain foreign restricted licenses and permits, such as the ICP license, through the Former VIE. Though the Former VIE has not been an entity in which we own equity interests or through which we operate business, its financial results had been consolidated into our consolidated financial statements before the Termination Date for accounting purposes. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.C. Organizational Structure—Former Contractual Arrangements with the Former VIE and Its Nominee Shareholders” for details on these contractual arrangements.
In March 2024, we terminated these contractual arrangements because (i) the foreign restricted licenses and permits held through the Former VIE are not necessary for our business operations as currently conducted, and (ii) we believe the termination of these arrangements help to optimize our corporate governance structure. For the condensed consolidating schedule that disaggregates the parent company, the Former VIE and its consolidated subsidiaries for Luckin Coffee Inc. for the year ended December 31, 2023 and for the period from January 1, 2024 to the Termination Date, see “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects—5.B. Liquidity and Capital Resources—Holding Company Structure—Condensed Consolidating Schedule.”
As used in this annual report, “we,” “us,” “our company,” “our,” “Group” or “Luckin” refers to Luckin Coffee Inc. and its subsidiaries, and also its Former VIE, in the context of describing Luckin Coffee Inc.’s consolidated financial information for the years ended or as of December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025.
PRC subsidiaries refer to Luckin Coffee Group Co., Ltd., Beijing Luckin Coffee Co., Ltd., Luckin Investment (Tianjin) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee Roasting (Pingnan) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee Food (Jiangsu) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee Trading (Xiamen) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee Development (Yunnan) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee Food (QingDao) Co.,Ltd., Guangdong Luckin Coffee Co., Ltd., Luckin Supply Chain Management (Xiamen) Co., Ltd., Luckin Coffee (Yunnan) Co., Ltd. and their respective subsidiaries in the context of describing their activities. The Former VIE refers to Beijing Luckin Coffee Technology Ltd. in the context of describing its activities and the former contractual arrangements with us.
We face various legal and operational risks and uncertainties as a company based in and primarily operating in China due to the constant evolution of the social, legal, and economic environments. Changes in China’s economic, political or social conditions or government policies could have a material adverse effect on our business and operations. We could be adversely affected by uncertainties with respect to the PRC legal system. Rules and regulations in China can change quickly with little advance notice. In addition, as the regulatory environment continues to rapidly evolve, the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations involve additional uncertainties. Since PRC administrative rules may be subject to changes, which may affect our business, it may be difficult to evaluate the outcome of administrative and court proceedings and the level of legal protection we enjoy.
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The PRC government has significant authority to exert influence on the ability of a China-based company, like us, to conduct its business, accept foreign investments or be listed on a U.S. stock exchange. We also face risks associated with recent statements and regulatory actions by the PRC government, including those related to regulatory approvals of offshore securities offerings, anti-monopoly regulatory investigations and actions, cybersecurity and data privacy compliance. For example, the PRC government has recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight over overseas securities offerings and published a series of laws and regulations to regulate such transactions. See “Item 4. Information on the Company – 4.A. History and Development of the Company – Recent Regulatory Development” for more information about these new laws and regulations. If the CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies determine that prior approval is required for any of our offerings of securities overseas or other activities in overseas capital markets, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to obtain such approval in a timely manner, or at all. The CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies may also take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, not to proceed with such activities. If we proceed with any of such activities without obtaining the CSRC’s, CAC’s or other PRC regulatory agencies’ approval to the extent it is required, or if we are unable to comply with any new regulatory requirements, we may face regulatory actions or other sanctions from the CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies. These regulatory agencies may impose fines and penalties on our operations in China, limit our ability to pay dividends outside of China or accept foreign investments, delay or restrict the repatriation of the proceeds from offering of securities overseas into China or take other actions that could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of the ADSs.
As the PRC legal system and regulatory environment continue to rapidly evolve, the PRC government has recently published new policies that affected various industries, and we cannot rule out the possibility that it will in the future release regulations or policies regarding our industry that could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. While we believe that our business operations comply with relevant PRC laws and regulations currently in force in all material respects, we cannot guarantee that new rules or regulations promulgated in the future will not impose any additional requirement on us or otherwise tighten the regulations on companies like us. Any such action, once taken by the PRC government, could cause the value of our securities to significantly decline or become worthless.
We also face risks associated with the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCA Act, which was enacted on December 18, 2020. Under the HFCA Act, if the SEC determines that an issuer has filed audit reports issued by a registered public accounting firm that has not been subject to inspection by the PCAOB for two consecutive years beginning in 2021, the SEC will prohibit its securities from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report to notify the SEC of its determination that the PCAOB was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong, including our auditor. In May 2022, we were conclusively identified by the SEC under the HFCA Act as having filed audit reports issued by a registered public accounting firm that cannot be inspected or investigated completed by the PCAOB, or as a “Commission-Identified Issuer”, in connection with our filing of our annual report on Form 20-F for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed mainland China and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. As a result, the SEC will not provisionally or conclusively identify an issuer as a Commission-Identified Issuer if it files an annual report with an audit report issued by a registered public accounting firm headquartered in mainland China or Hong Kong on or after December 15, 2022, until such time as the PCAOB issues a new determination. Whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong in the future is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our, and our auditor’s, control, including the uncertainties surrounding the relationship between China and the United States. If PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in mainland China and Hong Kong and we continue to use an accounting firm headquartered in one of these jurisdictions to issue an audit report on our financial statements filed with the SEC, we would be identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer following the filing of the annual report on Form 20-F for the relevant fiscal year. There can be no assurance that we would not be identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer for any future fiscal year, and if we were so identified for two consecutive years, we would become subject to the prohibition on trading under the HFCA Act. For details, see “—3.D. Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Doing Business in China—Trading in our ADSs on the OTC may be prohibited under the HFCA Act, if the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect or fully investigate our auditors. The prohibition of trading in our ADSs on the OTC may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment. If this happens there is no certainty that we will be able to list our Ordinary Shares on a non-U.S. exchange or that a market for our Ordinary Shares will develop outside the United States.”
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Investors in our securities should note that to the extent cash in our business is in the PRC or a PRC entity, the funds may not be available to fund operations or for other use outside of the PRC due to the rules and restrictions on the ability of Luckin Coffee Inc. or its subsidiaries under the PRC laws and regulations to transfer cash. Our PRC subsidiaries are permitted to pay dividends to their shareholders, and eventually to Luckin Coffee Inc., only out of their retained earnings, if any, as determined in accordance with PRC accounting standards and regulations. Such payment of dividends by entities registered in China is subject to limitations, which could result in limitations on the availability of cash to fund dividends or make distributions to holders of our securities. For example, our PRC subsidiaries are required to make appropriations to certain statutory reserve funds or may make appropriations to certain discretionary funds, which are not distributable as cash dividends except in the event of a solvent liquidation of the companies. For details about the applicable PRC regulations and rules relating to such cash transfers through our Group and the associated risks, see “—Risks Relating to Doing Business in China—Cash in our business in the PRC may not be available to fund operations or for other use outside of the PRC due to the rules and restrictions under the PRC laws and regulations to the transfer of cash. We may rely on dividends and other distributions on equity paid by our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have, and any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to make payments to us could have a material and adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business. In particular, the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends may be subject to foreign exchange restrictions and dividends may be paid only out of the distributable profits of our PRC subsidiaries as defined under the PRC laws and regulations,” “—Risks Relating to Doing Business in China—Governmental regulations of currency conversion may limit our ability to utilize our revenues effectively and affect the value of your investment,” and “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.A. History and Development of the Company—Recent Regulatory Development—Regulations on Foreign Exchange and the Ability to Transfer Cash between Entities, Across Borders and to U.S. Investors.”
Luckin Coffee Inc. has not previously declared or paid any cash dividend or dividend in kind, and has no definite plan against declaring or paying any dividends in the near future on its Shares or the ADSs. Certain of our PRC subsidiaries have issued dividends or distributions to their respective onshore parent companies, but no dividends or distributions were repatriated from PRC subsidiaries to our offshore entities as of the date of this annual report.
In accordance with the applicable PRC laws and regulations, the funds can be transferred between Luckin Coffee Inc., our PRC subsidiaries and the investors. Cash is transferred (a) among the offshore entities which in Cayman, Singapore, Hongkong and US based on business requirement, and (b) between offshore entities and PRC entities under PRC laws and regulations in the following manner: (i) funds are transferred to the PRC subsidiaries, from the Company as needed through our Cayman subsidiary, BVI subsidiaries, and Hong Kong subsidiaries in the form of capital contributions or intercompany loans, as the case may be; and (ii) dividends or other distributions may be paid by the PRC subsidiaries to Luckin Coffee Inc. through our Hong Kong subsidiaries, BVI subsidiaries and Cayman subsidiary; and (iii) Cross-border cash pool provided by bank and approved by PBOC.
As of December 31, 2025, Luckin Coffee Inc. made cumulative capital contributions of US$1,573.8 million to its PRC subsidiaries through its intermediate holding companies which were accounted as loans to its intermediate holding companies of Luckin Coffee Inc. These funds have been used by the PRC subsidiaries for their operations. In the future, cash proceeds raised from overseas financing activities may be transferred by us through Luckin HK to Luckin Group via capital contribution and intercompany loans, as the case may be. Luckin Group then will transfer funds to its subsidiaries to meet the capital needs of our business operations. Moreover, as of December 31, 2025, Luckin Coffee Inc. also made cumulative capital contributions of US$1.98 million, through its intermediate holding company, to Luckin Trading HK and Luckin Coffee (SGP) Pte. Ltd. In addition, the group also made RMB1,123.0 million from PRC subsidiaries to offshore entities for operation support.
3.A.[Reserved]
3.B.Capitalization and Indebtedness
Not applicable.
3.C.Reasons for the Offer and Use of Proceeds
Not applicable.
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3.D.Risk Factors
Risks Relating to the Fabricated Transactions, Internal Investigation, Internal Control, Offshore Restructuring and Related Matters
The Fabricated Transactions (defined below) first disclosed in 2020 have exposed us to a number of legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries, resulted in significant legal and other expenses, and required significant time and attention from our senior management, among other adverse impacts.
In March 2020, our board of directors (the “Board”) formed a special committee (the “Special Committee”) to oversee an internal investigation (the “Internal Investigation”) into certain issues raised to the Board’s attention during the audit of our consolidated financial statements for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2019. In April 2020, the Special Committee brought to the Board’s attention that certain management and employees reporting to them had engaged in misconduct, including fabricating certain transactions. On July 1, 2020, we announced that the Special Committee had substantially completed the Internal Investigation and found that the fabrication of transactions by certain management and employees reporting to them (the “Fabricated Transactions”) began in April 2019 and that, as a result, our net revenue in 2019 was inflated by approximately RMB2.12 billion (US$0.31 billion), and our costs and expenses were inflated by approximately RMB1.34 billion (US$0.2 billion).
The Fabricated Transactions had and could continue to have material adverse impacts on us. We were or are the subject of a number of legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries with respect to the Fabricated Transactions and have been named as a defendant in a number of lawsuits, including class action lawsuits. We incurred significant costs in connection with the Internal Investigation, including legal expenses and costs associated with the restatement and adjustment of our financial statements for the second and third quarters in 2019. We may also incur material costs associated with our indemnification arrangements with our current and former directors and certain of our officers, as well as other indemnitees.
Moreover, an unfavorable outcome in any of these matters could result in significant damages, additional penalties or other remedies imposed against us, and/or our current or former directors or officers, which could harm our reputation, business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows. In addition, an unfavorable outcome in any of these matters could exceed coverage provided, if any, under potentially applicable insurance policies, which is limited. Following disclosure of the Fabricated Transactions, we have had difficulties in obtaining desirable insurance coverage, or any insurance coverage, regarding legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries, and we cannot assure you with any certainty that we will be able to obtain such coverage in the future. The Fabricated Transactions also led to material adverse impacts on our operations, our reputation and our relationships with business partners, as well as material adverse impacts on our financial position, including incurred costs and expenses and our ability to raise new capital in the future.
We cannot predict all impacts on us in connection with or arising from the Fabricated Transactions. Any unknown or new risks may result in a material adverse effect on us.
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We were or are the subject of a number of legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries by governmental agencies with respect to the Fabricated Transactions first disclosed in 2020, which have had and could continue to have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition, cash flows and results of operations, and could result in additional claims and material liabilities.
We were, have been or are currently the subject of a number of legal proceedings and investigations and inquiries by governmental agencies in various jurisdictions, including the investigation by the SEC relating to the Fabricated Transactions, the lawsuits relating to the default under the terms of the convertible senior notes indenture offered on January 10, 2020, penalty decisions from the Chinese State Administration for Market Regulation and certain of its sub-bureaus (collectively, the “SAMR”) relating to the Fabricated Transactions, the investigation by the Ministry of Finance of the PRC and other regulatory and court proceedings and investigations. On September 23, 2020, we received penalty decisions from the SAMR, which found that our conduct related to the Fabricated Transactions violated the PRC Anti-Unfair Competition Laws. On December 16, 2020, we entered into a settlement with the SEC regarding the Fabricated Transactions, under which we were subject to payment of penalties and are enjoined from violation of certain federal securities laws. Entering into the settlement with the SEC also results in the loss of certain exemptions or protections that were available to us under federal securities laws. On February 4, 2021, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (the “SDNY Court”) approved the SEC settlement. On February 3, 2022, the SEC filed with the SDNY Court a notice acknowledging that the Company has satisfied the civil penalties arising from the SEC settlement. See “Item 8. Financial Information—8.A. Consolidated Statements and Other Financial Information—Legal Proceedings.”
Moreover, we have corrected our VAT filing to the PRC tax authorities for rectifying the revenues and VAT payable recognized in relation to the Fabricated Transactions, and in 2022, a fine of RMB500,000 was imposed to us by the PRC tax authorities. However, we are uncertain whether such correction in the previous VAT filing and the fine imposed will fully resolve the matter to the satisfaction of the PRC tax authorities. If the PRC tax authorities do not accept such correction, we may be required to pay corresponding VAT tax and pay any applicable late payment surcharges for the Fabricated Transactions. In addition, the PRC tax authorities may confiscate the illegal income, and we may be subject to a fine of not less than 50% but not more than five times the amount of unpaid or underpaid taxes. We may also be subject to criminal penalties if such violations are deemed to constitute criminal offense.
We are unable to predict how long the ongoing proceedings, investigations and inquiries will continue, and we may continue to incur significant costs in connection with these matters and that these proceedings, investigations and inquiries may result in diversion of management’s time, regardless of the outcome. These proceedings, investigations and inquiries may result in damages, fines, penalties, consent orders or other administrative sanctions against us and/or certain of our officers, or in changes to our business practices, among others. In addition, there might be proceedings, investigations and inquiries with respect to the Fabricated Transactions that are unknown to us or that might be initiated in the future, which could have a material adverse effect on us.
Publicity surrounding these proceedings, investigations and inquiries or any enforcement action as a result thereof, even if ultimately resolved favorably for us, coupled with the intensified public scrutiny of us and certain of our practices, could result in additional investigations and legal proceedings. Moreover, the matters that led to our Internal Investigation and our financial restatement for the second and third quarters in 2019 have exposed us to increased risks of regulatory proceedings and government enforcement actions. As a result, these proceedings, investigations and inquiries could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition, including our ability to raise new capital, cash flows and results of operations.
We have been named as a defendant in a number of lawsuits filed by purchasers of our securities, and may be subject to such lawsuits in the future, including class action lawsuits that, absent settlement, could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows, and our reputation.
We have been named as a defendant in a number of lawsuits filed by purchasers of our securities, including class action lawsuits and will, absent any negotiated settlement, have to defend against such suits, including any appeals of such suits should our initial defenses be unsuccessful. In the event that our initial defenses of these suits are unsuccessful, there can be no assurance that we will prevail in any appeal.
As of the date of this annual report, we are aware that certain persons and entities (and their beneficiaries) who purchased or otherwise acquired the Company’s ADSs have filed a series of lawsuits alleging that the Company (and others) violated United States securities law. The Company considers the claims asserted in these lawsuits as contingent liabilities as the Company’s liability has not yet been established by the relevant courts, except for the settlements reached as described in this annual report.
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On July 22, 2022, we received final approval of a class action settlement from the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (the “Federal Class Settlement”) in In re Luckin Coffee Inc. Securities Litigation, Case No.1:20-cv-01293-JPC-JLC (SDNY). The Federal Class Settlement fully resolved all claims that have been or could be filed on behalf of a class of purchasers Company’s ADS between May 17, 2019 through July 15, 2020, inclusive. The amount of the Federal Class Settlement is $175 million. However, the Company expects to expend additional amounts to resolve claims of investors who submitted valid opt-out notices to exclude themselves from the Federal Class Settlement. The Company was also named as a defendant in a number of lawsuits filed by investors who opted-out of the Federal Class Settlement, alleging violations of U.S. securities laws. Those lawsuits have been dismissed.
On April 28, 2023, we received final approval of a class action settlement from the Commercial Division of the Supreme Court of the State of New York (the “State Class Settlement”) in In re Luckin Coffee Inc. Securities Litigation, Index No. 651939/2020 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Cty.) (the “State Class Action”). The State Class Settlement fully resolved claims that have been or could be filed on behalf of a class of purchasers of the Notes who did not release their claims in connection with the Scheme.
In addition, certain individuals and institutions, who have submitted opt-out notices, claim to have made investments relating to the Company’s ADS and have made informal demands for the Company to pay alleged losses resulting from the Fabricated Transactions disclosed on April 2, 2020. On April 13, 2023, two of those investors commenced legal proceedings against us in the High Court of the Republic of Singapore, seeking to recover an alleged loss of US$145.8 million in the aggregate. These legal proceedings are currently in an early stage of development, and we intend to use our best efforts to defend. In January 2026, we were informed that additional investors purportedly commenced new proceedings in Singapore relating to the Fabricated Transactions; however as of the date of this annual report, the Company has not been served with process.
See “Item 8. Financial Information—8.A. Consolidated Statements and Other Financial Information—Legal Proceedings” for further details of the lawsuits filed against us and settlements reached.
The Fabricated Transactions have exposed us to increased risks of litigation. We and our current and former directors and officers may, in the future, be subject to additional litigation. Subject to certain limitations, we are obligated to indemnify our current and former directors and officers in connection with such lawsuits and any related litigation or settlement amounts. Regardless of the outcome, these lawsuits, and any other litigation that may be brought against us or our current or former directors and officers, could be time-consuming, result in significant expense and divert the attention and resources of our management and other key employees. An unfavorable outcome in any of these matters could result in significant damages, additional penalties or other remedies imposed against us, our current or former directors or officers, which could harm our reputation, business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows. In addition, an unfavorable outcome in any of these matters could exceed coverage provided, if any, under potentially applicable insurance policies, which is limited. Following disclosure of the Fabricated Transactions, we have had difficulties in obtaining desirable insurance coverage, or any insurance coverage, regarding legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries, and we cannot assure you with any certainty that we will be able to obtain such coverage in the future.
Matters relating to or arising from the Fabricated Transactions and the Internal Investigation, including adverse publicity and potential concerns from our customers, suppliers or others with whom we do business, have had and could continue to have an adverse effect on our business and financial condition.
We have been and could continue to be the subject of negative publicity focusing on the Fabricated Transactions and adjustment of our financial statements for the second and third quarters in 2019, and we may be adversely impacted by negative reactions from our customers, suppliers or others with whom we do business. Concerns include the perception of the effort required to address our accounting and internal control environment, and the ability for us to be a long-term provider to our customers. Continued adverse publicity and potential concerns from our customers and business partners or others could harm our business and have an adverse effect on our reputation, financial condition and results of operations.
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The delisting of our ADSs from Nasdaq may continue to have a material adverse effect on the trading and price of our ADSs, and we cannot assure you that our ADSs will be relisted, or that once relisted, they will remain listed.
On July 1, 2020, we were delisted from Nasdaq when the staff of the Nasdaq Stock Market LLC filed a Form 25 Notification of Delisting. The delisting of our ADSs from Nasdaq has had and may continue to have a material adverse effect on us by, among other things, causing investors to dispose of our ADSs and limiting:
● the liquidity of our ADSs;
● the market price of our ADSs;
● the number of institutional and other investors that will consider investing in our ADSs;
● the availability of information concerning the trading prices and volume of our ADSs;
● the number of broker-dealers willing to execute trades in our ADSs; and
● our ability to obtain equity or debt financing for the continuation of our operations.
The lack of an active trading market may limit the liquidity of an investment in our ADSs, meaning you may not be able to sell our ADSs you own at times, or at prices, attractive to you. Any of these factors may materially and adversely affect the price of our ADSs.
We have completed an offshore restructuring of the Company’s indebtedness, including a restructuring of indebtedness to bondholders and settlement of certain of our contingent liabilities, yet we remain subject to pending and potential future lawsuits with respect to the Fabricated Transactions.
On July 15, 2020, the Cayman Court appointed Alexander Lawson of Alvarez & Marsal Cayman Islands Limited and Wing Sze Tiffany Wong of Alvarez & Marsal Asia Limited to act as “light-touch” Joint Provisional Liquidators of the Company (the “JPLs”) on the application of the Company in response to the presentation of a winding-up petition by a creditor of the Company in the Cayman Court. During the provisional liquidation, we operated our business under the day-to-day control of the Board, under the supervision of the JPLs, in accordance with a protocol executed on October 16, 2020. By order of the Cayman Court dated February 25, 2022, the petition was dismissed, and the JPLs were formally discharged with effect from March 4, 2022, bringing the provisional liquidation and the liquidation proceedings generally to a close. On August 26, 2022, we announced the redemption in full of the US$109.9 million of 9.00% series B senior secured notes due 2027 (the “New Notes” or “Series B Senior Secured Notes”) that we issued as a part of our offshore restructuring, which were our only offshore debt securities. See “Item 4.A. History and Development of the Company” for details of our offshore restructuring. However, we remain subject to pending and potential future lawsuits with respect to the Fabricated Transactions, and there may also be more lawsuits filed against us in the future. Failure to settle these lawsuits or other unfavorable outcomes in these proceedings could result in significant damages, additional penalties or other remedies imposed against us, our current or former directors or officers, which could harm our reputation, business, financial condition, results of operations or cash flows.
If we fail to implement and maintain an effective system of internal control, we may be unable to accurately report our results of operations, meet our reporting obligations or prevent fraud, and investor confidence and the trading price of the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.
As a public company, we are subject to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (“Section 404”), requires that we include a report from management on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in our annual report on Form 20-F. In 2025, our management, with the participation of our chief executive officer and chief financial officer, conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of our company’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025. Based on this evaluation, we concluded that internal control was effective as of December 31, 2025. In addition, our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. Our independent registered public accounting firm has issued an attestation report, which has concluded that as of December 31, 2025, our internal control over financial reporting was effective.
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Even though we did not note or identify any deficiencies that we believe to be material weaknesses as of December 31, 2025, if we fail to maintain the adequacy of our internal control over financial reporting, as these standards are modified, supplemented or amended from time to time, we may not be able to conclude on an ongoing basis that we have effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404. Generally speaking, if we fail to achieve and maintain an effective internal control environment, it could result in material misstatements in our financial statements and could also impair our ability to comply with applicable financial reporting requirements and related regulatory filings on a timely basis. As a result, our businesses, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of the ADSs, may be materially and adversely affected.
In addition, as a public company, our reporting obligations may place a significant strain on our management, operational and financial resources and systems for the foreseeable future. We may be unable to timely complete our evaluation testing and any required remediation.
If we are delinquent in our periodic reporting obligations, the broker-dealers will not be able to publish quotations for our ADSs on the OTC market.
Our ability to maintain a timely filing schedule with respect to our SEC reporting obligations is subject to a number of contingencies, including whether we can maintain the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. We cannot assure you that we will be able to timely make our future filings.
In case we delay our filings, investors may need to evaluate certain decisions with respect to our ADSs in light of our lack of current financial information. In addition, the SEC adopted amendments to the Exchange Act Rule 15c2-11 in September 2020 that enhanced disclosure and investor protection in the OTC market by ensuring that broker-dealers do not publish quotations for an issuer’s security when current issuer information is not publicly available, subject to certain exceptions. Therefore, if we are delayed in our filings, the broker-dealers will not be able to publish quotations for our ADSs on the OTC market. In such an event, the trading volume of our ADSs will be negligible, and the trading price may fall sharply as a result.
Risks Relating to Our Business and Industry
Our limited operating history may not be indicative of our future growth or financial results and we may not be able to sustain our historical growth rates.
We commenced our operations in October 2017 and have achieved significant growth since our inception. We expanded from a single trial store in Beijing to a global network of 31,048 stores as of December 31, 2025, consisting of 30,888 stores in China (including Hong Kong), 81 stores in Singapore, nine stores in the United States and 70 stores in Malaysia. We had 451 million cumulative transacting customers as of December 31, 2025. At the same time, we continue to evaluate our store performance and adjust our business plan accordingly. Our limited operating history may not be indicative of our future growth or financial results. There is no assurance that we will be able to maintain our historical growth rates in future periods. Our growth rates may decline for any number of possible reasons and some of them are beyond our control, including decreasing customer spending, increasing competition, declining growth of China’s coffee industry or China’s food and beverage sector in general, emergence of alternative business models, or changes in government policies or general economic conditions. We will continue to expand our product offerings and may explore new operating models to bring greater convenience to our customers and to increase our customer base and the number of transactions. However, the execution of any new business plans is subject to uncertainty and the total number of items sold and number of transacting customers may not grow at the rate we expect for the reasons stated above. Further, we may bear additional expenses and costs, including the negotiation of adjusted arrangements with suppliers, when we adjust our business plan. If our growth rates decline, investors’ perceptions of our business and prospects may be adversely affected and the trading price of the ADSs could decline. In addition, since our business model is innovative in China’s coffee industry, it may increase the difficulty in evaluating our business and future prospects based on our historical operational or financial results.
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If we are unable to successfully execute our strategies, our business and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.
We will continue to encounter challenges in implementing our managerial, operating and financial strategies. The major challenges in managing our business growth include, among other things:
● effectively identifying and securing locations for new stores and managing the daily operations of our stores. See “—We may be unsuccessful in operating our stores” for more details;
● controlling incurred costs in a competitive environment;
● timely adjusting our business plan based on our performance and market position as well as successfully launching the adjusted business plan;
● the success of members of the management in assuming their roles and the ability of the management team to implement and achieve our strategies and goals as they develop;
● the success of our members of the Board in assuming their roles;
● attracting, training and retaining a growing workforce to support our operations;
● continuously developing and launching successful new products;
● maintaining and upgrading our technology systems in a cost-effective manner;
● effectively managing our supply chain and ensuring our third-party suppliers continue to meet our quality and other standards and satisfy our future operational needs;
● implementing a variety of new and upgraded internal systems and procedures as our business continues to grow; and
● ensuring full compliance with relevant laws and regulations.
All efforts to address the challenges of our growth require significant managerial, financial and human resources. We cannot assure you that we will be able to execute managerial, operating and financial strategies to keep up with our growth. If we cannot manage our growth or execute our strategies effectively, our growth may slow down and our business and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.
If we fail to acquire new customers or retain existing customers in a cost-effective manner, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.
Our ability to cost-effectively attract new customers and retain existing customers is crucial to driving net revenues growth and achieving profitability. We have invested significantly in branding, sales and marketing to acquire and retain customers since our inception. For example, we offer various discount offers and deals in the form of vouchers and coupons. We also expect to continue to invest significantly to acquire new customers and retain existing ones. There can be no assurance that new customers will stay with us, or the net revenues from new customers we acquire will ultimately exceed the cost of acquiring those customers. In addition, if we reduce or discontinue our current discount offers and deals, if our existing customers no longer find our products appealing, or if our competitors offer more attractive products, prices, discounts or better customer services, our existing customers may lose interest in us, decrease their orders or even stop ordering from us. If we are unable to retain our existing customers or to acquire new customers in a cost-effective manner, our revenues may decrease and our results of operations will be adversely affected.
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We may be unsuccessful in operating our stores.
The operating results of our stores have been and will continue to be subject to a number of factors, including but not limited to:
● our ability to maintain and enhance the quality of our products and services or to develop and launch new products that meet our customers’ needs;
● our ability to retain existing customers and attract new customers;
● our ability to continually increase the number of items sold to each customer and number of items sold in each store;
● our ability to successfully implement our pricing strategies;
● our ability to timely respond to changes in market opportunities and customer preferences;
● our ability to maintain good relationships with third-party suppliers, service providers and strategic partners;
● our ability to hire, train and retain talented employees;
● our ability to manage costs of our operations, such as cost of materials, store rental, labor and other operating costs, and sales and marketing expenses;
● our ability to ensure full compliance with relevant laws and regulations, and maintain adequate and effective control, supervision and risk management over our stores; and
● our ability to monitor and control the overall operation of our stores.
Many factors that are out of our control, including the macroeconomic and regulatory environment, could also adversely affect our store operations. In addition, opening new stores near our existing stores may adversely affect the sales of our existing stores. Any of these factors listed above or described elsewhere in this Risk Factors section may render us unsuccessful in profitably operating our stores and could adversely impact our business, financial condition and/or results of operations. We may even have to shut down certain stores if their business, financial condition and operation results are below our expectation.
To the extent that we are not able to effectively gauge the direction of our key markets and successfully identify, develop and promote new or improved products in the changing market, our financial results and our competitive position will suffer.
We have devoted significant resources to launch and promote new products from time to time to serve broader customer demand, adapt to changes in market trends and shifts in customer taste and preferences, including the introduction of new coffee flavors and non-coffee products. However, we may not be successful in implementing our cross-selling strategy, developing innovative new products, and our new products may not be favored by customers or commercially successful. To the extent that we are not able to effectively gauge the direction of our key markets and successfully identify, develop and promote new or improved products in the changing market, our financial results and our competitive position will suffer.
Additionally, the growth of China’s coffee industry is affected by customer tastes, preferences, perceptions and spending patterns. Since we have generated, and expect to continue to generate, a considerable amount of our revenues from the sale of coffee, a shift in customer preferences away from coffee, the changes of spending pattern adversely affecting consumption of coffee, or the decrease or slow growth of coffee consumption in China would harm our business, more than if our revenues were generated from more diversified products.
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We may face additional risks associated with our partnership model.
We launched our retail partnership model in 2019 and our exclusive franchise model in 2025. The partnership model has become increasingly important to our business as a whole. Our revenues from partnership stores were RMB6,225.8 million, RMB7,745.3 million and RMB11,593.7 million (US$1,654.8 million) in 2023, 2024, and 2025, which represented 25.0%, 22.5% and 23.5% of our total revenues, respectively. The partnership model may subject us to a number of risks, including but not limited to:
● We might not be able to effectively control partners’ actions and their daily store operation, and in case that their actions harm our business, our contractual rights and remedies are limited;
● The unsatisfactory service provided by or misconduct of our partners may harm the goodwill associated with our brands, and may adversely impact our business and results of operations;
● The revenues we realize from partnership stores are partly dependent on our partners’ ability to grow their sales;
● The failure of our partners to comply with local regulatory rules may subject us to losses and harm our reputation;
● Partners may not completely fulfill their obligation under the partnership agreement, which may adversely impact our business and results of operations;
● The number and quality of partners are subject to change over time, which may negatively affect our business; and
● Our partners may be subject to a variety of litigation risks, including, but not limited to, customer claims, food safety claims and employee allegations of improper termination. Although we are not directly liable for the costs involved in these types of litigation, each of these claims may increase the costs of our partners and adversely affect their profitability, which in turn could adversely affect our business, operating results and brand.
We face intense competition in China’s coffee industry and food and beverage sector in general, and our products are not proprietary. If we fail to compete effectively, we may lose market share and customers, and our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.
China’s coffee industry and food and beverage sector are intensely competitive. Our products, including our coffee recipes, are not proprietary, and therefore, we are unable to prevent competitors from copying the recipes of our products and sell similar products. We not only compete with a number of coffee shop operators, but also with other businesses, such as convenience stores as well as food and beverages operators with convenient locations. Our competitors may have more financial, technical, marketing and other resources than we do and may be more experienced and able to devote greater resources to the development, promotion and support of their business. Some competitors are well established in China and any defensive measures they take in response to our expansion could hinder our growth and adversely affect our sales and results of operations. In addition, China’s coffee industry is subject to the entry of new and well-funded competitors. For more information related to the competitive landscape of China’s coffee industry, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview—Competition.” Increased competition may reduce our market share and profitability and require us to increase our sales and marketing efforts and capital commitment in the future, which could negatively affect our results of operations or force us to incur further losses. Although we have accumulated a large and growing customer base, there is no assurance that we will be able to continue to do so in the future against current or future competitors, and such competitive pressures may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We have incurred significant operating losses in the past and may experience operating losses in the future.
We have incurred significant operating losses attributable to the Company since our inception in June 2017. Although we had operating income of RMB3,020.4 million, RMB3,570.1 million and RMB5,072.9 million (US$724.1 million), respectively, for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, we may incur operating losses in future periods and may not be able to sustain our profitability.
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We intend to invest to further improve our brand awareness, maintain and expand our customer base and store network, continuously launch new product offerings, further strengthen our technological capabilities, enhance and optimize our supply chain management and prudently explore expansion into overseas markets. In addition, our net revenues will be impacted by various factors, including the performances of our stores, level of discounts we offer for different products, competitive landscape, customer preference and macroeconomic and regulatory environment. Therefore, our revenues may not grow at the rate we expect and may not increase sufficiently to offset the increase in our expenses. We may continue to incur losses in the future and we cannot assure you that we will eventually achieve profitability.
We require a significant amount of capital to fund our operations and respond to business opportunities. If we cannot obtain sufficient capital on acceptable terms, our business, financial condition and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.
Building a well-known brand and accumulating a large and growing customer base are costly and time-consuming. For example, significant and continual investments in sales and marketing are required for further establishing brand awareness among the population in China to attract new customers and retain existing ones. In addition, we invest heavily in our technology systems, which are essential to our expansion and operations. It may take a long period of time to realize returns on such investments, if at all.
We have historically funded our cash requirements principally with proceeds from operating activities, capital contributions from our shareholders and the proceeds from our public offerings and private placement. If these resources are insufficient to satisfy our cash requirements, we may seek to raise funds through additional equity offerings or debt financings or obtain additional bank facilities. However, our ability to obtain additional capital in the future has been adversely affected by the impacts associated with the Fabricated Transactions and is subject to a number of uncertainties, including those relating to our future business development, financial condition and results of operations, general market conditions for financing activities by companies in our industry, and macroeconomic and other conditions in China and globally. If we cannot obtain sufficient capital on acceptable terms to meet our capital needs, we may not be able to execute our growth strategies, and our business, financial condition and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.
Our success depends on the continuing efforts of our key management and experienced and capable personnel as well as our ability to recruit new talent. If we fail to hire, train, retain or motivate our staff, our business may suffer.
Our future success is significantly dependent upon the continued service of our key management as well as experienced and capable personnel generally. If we lose the services of any member of key management or our experienced and capable personnel, we may not be able to locate suitable or qualified replacements, and may incur additional expenses to recruit and train new staff, which could severely disrupt our business and growth. If any of our key management or experienced and capable personnel is poached by and joins a competitor or forms a competing business, we may lose customers, know-how and key professionals and staff members.
Our rapid growth also requires us to hire, train, and retain a wide range of personnel who can adapt to a dynamic, competitive and challenging business environment and are capable of helping us conduct effective marketing, innovate new products, and develop technological capabilities. We will need to continue to attract, train and retain talent at all levels. We may need to offer attractive compensation and other benefits packages, including share-based compensation, to attract and retain them. We also need to provide our employees with sufficient training to help them to realize their career development and grow with us. Any failure to attract, train, retain or motivate key management and experienced and capable personnel could severely disrupt our business and growth.
Any disruption to our supply chain and delivery services would negatively impact our business.
We have a limited number of suppliers for our raw materials, pre-made food and beverage items, machines, delivery service to our customers,and warehouse and fulfillment service. In 2025, we purchased our coffee beans mainly from three suppliers, dairy products mainly from three suppliers, plant-based raw materials (such as coconut milk) mainly from two suppliers, syrup mainly from two suppliers and pre-made food and beverage items from a few selected sources. Additionally, we mainly rely on three delivery service providers to provide most of the delivery service to our customers, and cooperate with three warehouse and fulfillment service providers for our inventory storage and fulfillments between warehouses and from warehouses to our stores.
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Due to our limited number of suppliers, any interruption to the operations of our suppliers, any failure of our suppliers to accommodate our business scale, any termination or suspension of our supply arrangements, any change in cooperation terms, the deterioration of relationships with these suppliers or any disputes with them may materially and adversely affect our results of operations. In addition, our current agreements with our suppliers generally do not prohibit them from working with our competitors. Our competitors may be more effective in providing incentives to our suppliers to prioritize on their orders in case of short supply. We cannot assure you that we would be able to find replacement suppliers on commercially reasonable terms or a timely basis.
Our supply chain and delivery services may be disrupted by other factors, including but not limited to, improper supply chain management, regulatory changes or noncompliance, surging market demand for our products or raw materials and extreme weather, natural disasters, health epidemics and other calamities. Any such disruptions may result in loss of potential orders, failures to deliver the customer order on time, or at all, and negative impact on the results of our business operations, financial performance and reputation.
Failure to maintain the quality and safety of our products could have a material and adverse effect on our reputation, financial condition and results of operations.
The quality and safety of our products are critical to our success. For more information on our quality control system, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview—Supply Chain” and “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview—Food Safety and Quality Control.” However, due to the scale of our operations and growth of our store network, maintaining consistent product quality depends significantly on the effectiveness of our quality control system, which in turn depends on a number of factors, including but not limited to the design of our quality control system, employee training to ensure that our employees adhere to and implement our quality control policies and procedures and the effectiveness of monitoring any potential violation of our quality control policies and procedures. There can be no assurance that our quality control system will always prove to be effective.
In addition, the quality of the products or services provided by our suppliers or service providers is subject to factors beyond our control, including the effectiveness and the efficiency of their quality control system, among others. There can be no assurance that our suppliers or service providers will always be able to adopt appropriate quality control systems and meet our stringent quality control requirements in respect of the products or services they provide. Any failure of our suppliers or service providers to provide satisfactory products or services could harm our reputation and adversely impact our operations. See “—Illegal actions or misconduct, or any failure by third-party suppliers, our partners, or service providers to provide satisfactory products or services could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, we may be unable to receive sufficient compensation from suppliers and service providers for the losses caused by them.”
If customers become ill from food or beverage-borne illnesses, tampering, adulteration, contamination, mislabeling or other food or beverage safety issues, we could be forced to temporarily close the impacted stores and/or be involved in related disputes or legal proceedings. In addition, instances of food or beverage safety issues, even those not involving us or our suppliers, could, by resulting in negative publicity about us, China’s coffee industry or China’s food and beverage market in general, adversely affect our reputation, financial condition and results of operations. A decrease in customer confidence in the safety and quality of our products or any food safety issues could materially harm our business and results of operations. See “—Adverse incidents or reports of food-safety issues, whether true or not, may harm our business.”
Any significant disruption in our technology infrastructure or our failure to maintain the satisfactory performance, security and integrity of our technology infrastructure would materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.
The proper functioning of our technology infrastructure is essential to our business. We rely on our technology to improve customer engagement and our operational efficiency, among others. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview—Technology.” The risks we face in relation to the disruption of our technology infrastructure include:
● we may encounter problems when upgrading our technology infrastructure including our mobile apps, systems and software. The development, upgrades and implementation of our technology infrastructure are complex processes. Issues not identified during pre-launch testing of new services may only become evident when such services are made available to our entire customer base. Therefore, our technology infrastructure, including our mobile apps, may not function properly if we fail to detect or solve technical errors in a timely manner; and
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● our systems are potentially vulnerable to damage or interruption as a result of earthquakes, floods, fires, extreme temperatures, power loss, telecommunications failures, technical error, computer viruses, hacking and similar events.
These and other events may lead to the unavailability of our mobile apps, interruption of our supply chain and delivery, leakage or permanent loss of customer data, interruptions or decreases in connection speed, or other events which would negatively affect our operations. If we experience frequent or persistent service disruptions, whether caused by failures of our own systems or those of third-party suppliers or service providers, our reputation or relationships with our customers may be damaged and our customers may switch to our competitors, which may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We face risks related to natural disasters, health epidemics and other calamities, which could significantly disrupt our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We are vulnerable to natural disasters, health epidemics, and other calamities. Any of such occurrences could cause severe disruption to the daily operations of us, and may even require a temporary closure of facilities and logistics delivery networks, which may disrupt our business operations and adversely affect our results of operations. In addition, geopolitical conflicts may lead to higher transportation and logistics costs for shipping equipment, raw materials and coffee beans to international locations, which could adversely affect our cost structure and operational efficiency. Our results of operations could be adversely affected to the extent that any of these catastrophic events harm the Chinese economy in general.
From time to time, we may evaluate and potentially consummate strategic investments, acquisitions, strategic cooperation, formation of joint ventures and new business initiatives which may turn out to be not successful and adversely affect our operation and financial results.
To complement our business and strengthen our market-leading position, we may form strategic alliances or make strategic investments and acquisitions from time to time. In addition, we continually evaluate the potentials of new business initiatives or new markets. We may experience difficulties in integrating our operations with the newly invested or acquired businesses, executing new business initiatives, managing our expansion, implementing our strategies or achieving expected levels of net revenues, profitability, productivity or other benefits. For example, in 2023, due to operational strategy adjustments, we decided to cease all operations under Luckin Tea, and thus recorded a full impairment of RMB4.5 million (US$0.6 million) for assets in relation to Luckin Tea. Therefore, we cannot assure you that our investments, acquisitions, cooperation and new business initiatives will benefit our business strategy, generate sufficient net revenues to offset the associated costs, or otherwise result in the intended benefits.
Growth of our business will partially depend on the recognition of our brand, and any failure to maintain, protect and enhance our brand would limit our ability to grow or retain our customer base, which would materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We believe that recognition of our brand among customers has helped us manage our customer acquisition costs and contributed to the growth and success of our business. Accordingly, maintaining, protecting and enhancing the recognition of our brand is critical to our business and market position. Many factors, some of which are beyond our control, are important to maintaining, protecting and enhancing our brand. These factors include but are not limited to our ability to:
● maintain the quality and attractiveness of the products we offer;
● develop and launch new products that satisfy our customers’ needs;
● provide a superior customer experience;
● increase brand awareness through marketing and brand promotion activities;
● maintain good relationships and retain favorable terms with our suppliers, service providers and other business partners;
● stay compliant with relevant laws and regulations;
● compete effectively against existing and future competitors; and
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● preserve our reputation and goodwill generally and in the event of any negative publicity on our products, services and data security, or other issues affecting us, China’s coffee industry or China’s food and beverage sector in general.
A public perception that we, or other industry participants do not provide satisfactory products or services to customers, even if factually incorrect or based on isolated incidents, could damage our reputation, diminish the value of our brand, undermine the trust and credibility we have established and have a negative impact on our ability to attract and retain customers, and our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.
We have been and may increasingly become a target for public scrutiny, including complaints to regulatory agencies, negative media coverage, and malicious allegations, all of which could severely damage our reputation and materially and adversely affect our business and prospects.
Publicity about our business and management creates the possibility of heightened attention from the public, regulators and the media. Any negative report regarding our business, financial condition, results of operations, our management and employees could damage our brand image and severely affect the sales of our products and possibly lead to claims, litigation and damages. One of our executive officers, Mr. Fei Yang, was the president of IWOM Marketing Co., Ltd. (“IWOM”), a digital marketing company, when it was convicted of illegal business operation in 2013 for deleting user-generated content for profit. Mr. Yang was held liable as IWOM’s president and was given a short-term (18 months) prison sentence.
Although Mr. Yang left IWOM in 2015, there has been and might continue to be negative media coverage about this conviction, which may have a negative effect on our public image and business. In addition, improper behavior or statements of our spokespersons, endorsers and other celebrities we have cooperated with and our employees may result in substantial harm to our brand, reputation and operations. We could become a target for public scrutiny, including complaints to regulatory agencies, negative media coverage, and malicious allegations, in the future, and such scrutiny and public exposure could severely damage our reputation as well as our business and prospects.
We have incurred significant costs on a variety of sales and marketing efforts, including mass advertising and heavy promotions to attract customers, and some sales and marketing campaigns and methods may not be sustainable or may turn out to be ineffective.
We have invested significantly in sales and marketing activities to promote our brand and our products and to deepen our relationships with customers. We incurred RMB1,286.5 million, RMB1,920.3 million and RMB2,595.7 (US$$370.5 million) in sales and marketing expenses for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024, and 2025, respectively. We also regularly offer coupons and vouchers to increase our customer base, retain our existing customers or promote new products, and such promotion activities might not be sustainable.
Our sales and marketing activities may not be well received by our existing customers, and may not attract new customers as anticipated. The evolving marketing landscape may require us to experiment with new marketing methods to keep pace with industry trends and customer preferences. Failure to refine our existing marketing approaches or to introduce new marketing approaches in a cost-effective manner could reduce our market share and negatively impact our results of operations. There is no assurance that we will be able to recover the costs of our sales and marketing activities or that these activities will be effective in attracting new customers and retaining existing customers.
We may be unsuccessful in managing our store network.
We may not be able to manage our store network. The number and timing of the stores actually opened during any given period are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, including but not limited to our ability to:
● identify suitable locations and secure leases on commercially reasonable terms;
● obtain adequate funding for development and opening costs;
● obtain the required licenses, permits and approvals;
● efficiently manage our time and cost in relation to the design, decoration and preopening processes for each of our stores;
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● develop and retain suitable partners; and
● hire, train and retain skilled employees.
Any factors listed above, either individually or in aggregate, might delay or fail our plan to increase the number of stores in desirable locations at manageable cost levels.
In addition, we may not be able to successfully operate our existing stores and may choose to shut down certain stores from time to time.
Adverse incidents or reports of food-safety issues, whether true or not, may harm our business.
Instances or reports of food-safety issues, such as food or beverage-borne illnesses, tampering, adulteration, contamination or mislabeling, either during growing, manufacturing, packaging, storing or preparation, whether true or not, have in the past severely injured the reputations of companies in China’s food and beverage market and could affect us as well. Product safety or quality issues, actual or perceived, or allegations of product contamination, even when false or unfounded, could tarnish the image of our brand and may cause customers to choose other products. Such issues could materially and negatively affect our reputation, results of operations and financial performance.
Any lack of requisite approvals, licenses or permits applicable to our business may have a material and adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.
In accordance with the relevant laws and regulations in jurisdictions in which we operate, we are required to maintain various approvals, licenses and permits to operate our business, including but not limited to business licenses, food operation licenses, fire safety inspections, single-purpose prepaid card filings, and commercial franchise filings. These approvals, licenses and permits are obtained upon satisfactory compliance with, among other things, the applicable laws and regulations. If we or our partners fail to obtain the necessary licenses, permits and approvals, we may be subject to fines, confiscation of the gains derived from the related stores or the suspension of operations of the related stores. We may also experience adverse publicity arising from such noncompliance with government regulations that negatively impacts our brand. We may experience difficulties or failures in obtaining the necessary approvals, licenses and permits for new stores. If we fail to obtain the material licenses, our store opening and expansion plan may be delayed. In addition, there can be no assurance that we will be able to obtain and/or renew all of the approvals, licenses and permits required for our existing business operations upon their expiration in a timely manner or at all, which could adversely affect our business operations. The following are some particular risks and potential negative consequences regarding certain lack of requisite approvals, licenses or permits, without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing.
As of the date of this annual report, a small portion of our stores in China have not obtained business licenses, and we are in the process of obtaining business licenses for these stores. We may be ordered by the government authorities to rectify such noncompliance or to suspend operations of these stores and may be subject to fines of up to RMB500,000 for each store that fails to obtain business licenses.
As of the date of this annual report, a small portion of our stores in China have not obtained food operation licenses, and we are in the process of obtaining food operation licenses for these stores. The relevant government authorities may confiscate the income of these stores since commencing operation as well as the food and beverage products sold at these stores and the raw materials and equipment used in store operation, and may impose fines based on the value of the food and beverage products sold at each store (if the value of the food and beverage products is less than RMB10,000, a fine up to RMB100,000 may be imposed; if the value of the food and beverage products is more than RMB10,000, a fine up to 20 times of such value may be imposed).
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Some of our stores in China are required to obtain permits over fire safety inspection by local fire prevention authorities. However, as of the date of this annual report, certain of these stores have not obtained such permits. Our stores that fail to obtain the permits over fire safety inspections may be ordered by the relevant government authorities to close down and may be subject to a fine of up to RMB300,000 per store. In addition, some of our stores have not completed the required as-built acceptance check on fire prevention or fire safety filing. If the stores that fail to complete such fire safety filing are found unqualified by relevant government authorities in random inspection, they may be ordered by the relevant government authorities to close down and may be subject to a fine of up to RMB300,000 per store. As advised by our PRC legal counsel, King & Wood, the likelihood that we would be subject to material administrative penalties by fire safety regulatory authorities is low.
We have recorded negative cash flows from operating activities historically and may have a net current liabilities position in the future.
We have experienced significant cash outflow from operating activities in the past. Though we have had cash inflows in recent years, we cannot guarantee that we will maintain that positive operating cash position in the future. If our cost of continuing operations increases in the future or our cash generated from operating activities does not meet our expectation, our operating cash position could worsen, and our business could be adversely affected because of the limited amount of cash available to meet the cash needs for operating our business and to fund our investments in our business expansion.
Though we have had net asset positions in recent years, we could have a net current liabilities position in the future, which would expose us to liquidity risk. Our future liquidity and ability to make additional capital investments necessary for our operations and business expansion will depend primarily on our ability to maintain sufficient cash generated from operating activities and to obtain adequate external financing. There can be no assurance that we will be able to renew existing bank facilities or obtain other sources of financing.
We have undertaken strategic partnerships which may not be successful. If our collaboration with any of our strategic partners is terminated or curtailed, or if we are no longer able to benefit from the business collaborations with our strategic partners, our business may be adversely affected.
Our business has benefited from our collaborations with our strategic partners, including Weixin, in the areas such as mobile ordering and payment and joint marketing. We have entered into certain collaborations or alliances, with our business partners historically from time to time. We cannot assure you that such alliances or partnerships will contribute to our business, and we might not be able to maintain our cooperative relationships with our strategic partners and their respective affiliates in the future. If the services provided by these strategic partners become limited, compromised, restricted, curtailed or less effective or become more expensive or unavailable to us for any reason, our business may be materially and adversely affected. To the extent we cannot maintain our cooperative relationships with any of these strategic partners, it may be very difficult for us to identify other alternative partners, which may divert significant management attention from existing business operations and adversely impact our daily operation and customer experience.
A significant interruption in the operations of our third-party suppliers, partners and service providers could potentially disrupt our operations.
We have limited control over the operations of our third-party suppliers, partners, service providers and other business partners and any significant interruption in their operations may have an adverse impact on our operations. For example, a significant interruption in the operations of our roasted coffee bean suppliers’ roasting facilities could cause a shortage of coffee at our stores, a significant interruption impacting our leased warehouses, whether as a result of a natural disaster, labor difficulties, fire or other causes, could cause the shortage of our inventory, and a significant interruption in the operations of our internet service provider could impact the operation of our mobile apps. If we cannot solve the impact of the interruptions of operations of our third-party suppliers, partners or service providers, our business operations and financial results may be materially and adversely affected.
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Illegal actions or misconduct, or any failure by third-party suppliers, our partners, or service providers to provide satisfactory products or services could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, we may be unable to receive sufficient compensation from suppliers and service providers for the losses caused by them.
Our reputation and operation may be harmed by illegal or unsatisfactory actions taken by suppliers, our partners and service providers over which we have limited control. For example, the failure of our raw material suppliers to ensure product quality or to comply with food safety or other laws and regulations could interrupt our operations and result in claims against us, and any delay in delivery of our products, damage to our products during the course of delivery and inappropriate actions taken by delivery riders of our delivery service providers might cause customer complaints.
In the event that we become subject to claims caused by actions taken by our suppliers, our partners, or service providers, we may attempt to seek compensation from the relevant suppliers, our partners, or service providers. However, such compensation may be limited. For example, we may not be able to fully cover compensation from our relevant partners in case that our losses attributed to their actions exceed their deposit withheld by us. If no claim can be asserted against a supplier, our partners, or service provider, or amounts that we claim cannot be fully recovered from the supplier, our partners, or service provider, we may be required to bear such losses and compensation at our own costs. This could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We face the risk of fluctuations in the cost, availability and quality of our raw materials and pre-made products, which could adversely affect our results of operations.
The cost, availability and quality of our principal raw material, such as Arabica coffee beans, coffee condiments, tea leaves, as well as pre-made food and beverage items, are important to our operations. We usually enter into fixed-price purchase agreements with suppliers of raw materials and pre-made food and beverage items with a term of one year. However, such contract prices may be renegotiated when there is significant fluctuation in the market price of these products. For example, coffee bean prices have risen in recent years due to climate change, supply chain disruptions, and increasing global demand, thus impacting our raw material costs. If the cost of raw materials and pre-made products increases after expiration of existing agreements, due to large market price fluctuation or due to any other reason, our business and results of operations could be adversely affected.
In addition, as coffee beans and most of our coffee condiments and pre-made products have relatively short shelf life, frequent and timely supply of these products are essential to our operations. Lack of availability of these products, whether due to shortages in supply, delays or interruptions in processing, failure of timely delivery or otherwise, could interrupt our operations and adversely affect our financial results.
Uncertainties relating to the growth of China’s coffee industry and food and beverage industry could adversely affect our revenues and business prospects.
Our business is affected by the development of China’s coffee industry and food and beverage industry in general. The demand for our coffee items and our future results of operations will depend on numerous factors affecting the development of China’s coffee industry and food and beverage industry in general, such as governmental regulations and policies over this industry, investments in this industry and the drinking culture and hobby of Chinese consumers, and some of them are completely beyond our control.
A decline in the popularity of coffee, especially freshly brewed coffee, or any failure by us to adapt our strategies in response to trends in China’s coffee industry and food and beverage industry in general may adversely affect our results of operations and business prospects.
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Adverse public or medical opinion about the health effects of our products may harm our business.
Some of our products contain caffeine, dairy products, sugar and other active compounds, the health effects of which are not fully understood. The excessive consumption of these compounds may result in adverse health effects and have caused increasing public awareness. For example, a number of research studies conclude or suggest that excessive consumption of caffeine may lead to increased heart rate, nausea and vomiting, restlessness and anxiety, depression, headaches, tremors, sleeplessness and other adverse health effects. A number of research studies suggest the excess consumption of added sugar is associated with a variety of preventable diseases, obesity and damaged metabolism. Unfavorable reports on the health effects of caffeine or other compounds of our products could significantly reduce the sales of our products. Also, we could become subject to litigation relating to the existence of such compounds in our products and any such litigation could be costly and could divert management attention.
Our expansion into international markets will expose us to additional tax, compliance, policy, market and other risks, and there can be no assurance that any such expansion will be successful.
We are exploring business expansion into international markets. Our operations in international markets will expose us to various risks, including but not limited to those arising from:
● competition with local competitors (which may have greater resources and/or more favorable market positions);
● the diversity of customer preferences and demand and our ability to anticipate or respond to such preferences and demand;
● changes in the political and economic environments in the countries where we operate;
● changes in laws and regulations, including tax regulations, and the imposition of new duties or other protectionist measures;
● regulatory or customary restrictions to any aspect of our existing business model;
● difficulties and costs associated with complying with, and enforcing remedies under, a wide variety of complex domestic and international laws, treaties and regulations;
● economic sanctions, trade restrictions, discrimination, protectionism or unfavorable policies against China-based companies;
● the infringement of our intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions;
● exposure to litigation or third-party claims outside the PRC;
● foreign currency exchange controls and fluctuations; and
● the occurrence of acts of terrorism or similar events, conflicts, civil unrest or situations of political instability, uncertainties in international relations or geopolitical tensions.
These or other factors may harm our business in international markets or cause us to incur significant costs in these markets, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.
Our business is subject to seasonal fluctuations and unexpected interruptions.
We experience seasonality in our business. We generally experience fewer purchase orders during certain periods of a year, such as winter and the Chinese New Year holidays. We also experience fluctuations in the types of products sold as a result of weather changes that affect consumers’ preference for different drinks, which have different average selling prices and margin profiles. However, we cannot guarantee that such trend will be indicative of our future performance. Therefore, our financial condition and results of operations for future quarters may continue to fluctuate and our historical quarterly results may not be comparable to future quarters. As a result, the trading price of the ADSs may fluctuate from time to time due to seasonality.
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Overall tightening of the labor market, increases in labor costs or any possible labor unrest may adversely affect our business and results of operations.
Our business requires a substantial number of personnel. Any failure to retain stable and dedicated labor by us may lead to disruption to our business operations.
Although we have not experienced any material labor shortage as of the date of this annual report, we have observed an overall tightening and increasingly competitive labor market. We have experienced, and expect to continue to experience, increases in labor costs due to increases in salary, social benefits and employee headcount. We compete with other companies in our industry and other labor-intensive industries for labor, and we may not be able to offer competitive remuneration and benefits compared to them. If we are unable to manage and control our labor costs, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.
Our business generates and processes a large amount of data, which subjects us to evolving governmental regulations and other legal obligations related to privacy, cybersecurity, information security and data protection, many of which are subject to changes and uncertain interpretations. Any failure to comply with these governmental regulations and legal obligations, improper use or disclosure of such data by us, our employees or our business partners could subject us to significant reputational, financial, legal and operational consequences.
Our business generates and processes a large quantity of personal, transaction, and behavior data. We face risks inherent in handling large volumes of data and in protecting the security of such data. In particular, we face a number of challenges relating to data from transactions and other activities on our system, including:
● protecting the data in and hosted on our system, including against attacks on our system by third parties or fraudulent behavior by our employees;
● addressing concerns related to privacy and sharing, safety, security and other factors; and
● complying with applicable laws, rules and regulations relating to the collection, use, disclosure or security of personal information, including any requests from regulatory and government authorities relating to such data.
Any systems failure or security breach or lapse that results in the release of customer data could harm our reputation and brand and, consequently, our business, in addition to exposing us to potential legal liability. Furthermore, our business partners and their employees may improperly use or disclose the data we disclose to them for our operation and we have limited control over the actions of our business partners and their employees. Any failure, or perceived failure, by us, our employees, our business partners, or their employees to comply with privacy policies or with any regulatory requirements or privacy protection-related laws, rules and regulations could result in proceedings or actions against us by governmental entities or others. These proceedings or actions may subject us to significant penalties and negative publicity, require us to change our business practices, increase our costs and severely disrupt our business.
Recently, companies’ practices regarding collection, use, retention, transfer, disclosure and security of user data have been the subject of enhanced regulations and increased public scrutiny. For example, historically, we have been named by regulatory authorities among other apps for not expressly obtaining all authorizations from users, for which we have taken measures, including adjustments to our user privacy terms, to address the issue. The regulatory frameworks regarding privacy issues in many jurisdictions are constantly evolving and can be subject to significant changes from time to time.
In China, the PRC Cybersecurity Law, which became effective in June 2017 and revised in October 2025, provides that personal information and important data collected and generated by operators of critical information infrastructure in the course of their operations in the PRC should be stored in the PRC.
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In addition, regulators in China may implement measures to ensure that encryption of users’ data does not hinder law enforcement agencies’ access to that data. For example, according to the PRC Cybersecurity Law and relevant regulations, network operators, are obligated to provide assistance and support in accordance with the law for public security and national security authorities to protect national security or assist with criminal investigations. Compliance with these laws and requirements in manners that are perceived as harming privacy could lead to significant damage to our reputation and proceedings and actions against us by regulators and private parties.
On March 12, 2021, the CAC, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security and the SAMR jointly promulgated the Provisions on the Scope of Necessary Personal Information Required for Common Types of Mobile Internet Applications, which became effective on May 1, 2021, clarifying the scope of necessary information required for certain common mobile apps and stating that mobile apps operators may not deny users’ access to basic functions and services when the users opt out of the collection of unnecessary personal information. The CAC has since named a number of mobile apps in its regulatory announcement for failure to comply with privacy and data security regulations, and ordered these apps to rectify their data collection and use practices. On June 10, 2021, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China promulgated the Data Security Law which took effect on September 1, 2021, and on August 20, 2021, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China promulgated the Personal Information Protection Law which took effect on November 1, 2021. The Data Security Law provides for data security and privacy obligations of entities and individuals carrying out data activities, prohibits entities and individuals in China from providing any foreign judicial or law enforcement authority with any data stored in China without approval from competent PRC authority, and sets forth the legal liabilities of entities and individuals found to be in violation of their data protection obligations, including rectification order, warning, fines of up to RMB10 million, suspension of relevant business, and revocation of business permits or licenses. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview—Regulation—Regulation on Internet Privacy.” The Personal Information Protection Law took effect on November 1, 2021, integrates the various rules with respect to personal information rights and privacy protection and applies to the processing of personal information within mainland China as well as certain personal information processing activities outside mainland China, including those for the provision of products and services to natural persons within China or for the analysis and assessment of acts of natural persons within China.
Numerous regulations, guidelines and other measures have been or are expected to be adopted under the umbrella of, or in addition to, the Cybersecurity Law and Data Security Law. For example, Regulations on the Security Protection of Critical Information Infrastructure, or the CII Protection Regulations, became effective on September 1, 2021. According to the CII Protection Regulations, critical information infrastructure, or the CII, refers to any important network facilities or information systems of the important industry or field such as public communication and information service, energy, transportation, water conservancy, finance, public services, e-government affairs and national defense science, which may endanger national security, people’s livelihood and public interest in the case of damage, function loss or data leakage. Regulators supervising specific industries are required to formulate detailed guidance to identify CII in the respective sectors, and a critical information infrastructure operator, or a CIIO, must take the responsibility to protect the CII’s security by performing certain prescribed obligations. For example, CIIOs are required to conduct network security test and risk assessment, report the assessment results to relevant regulatory authorities, and timely rectify the issues identified at least once a year. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been identified as a CIIO by the relevant regulatory authority.
Additionally, in December 2021, the CAC and several other administrations jointly promulgated the amended Cybersecurity Review Measures, or the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which took effect on February 15, 2022. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, where the relevant activity affects or may affect national security, a CIIO that purchases network products and services, or an internet platform operator that conducts data process activities, shall be subject to the cybersecurity review. The Cybersecurity Review Measures also expands the cybersecurity review requirement to cover “internet platform operators” in possession of personal information of over one million users if such operators intend to list their securities in a foreign country. See “—Risks Relating to Doing Business in China—The approval, filing or other requirements of the CSRC, the CAC or other PRC government authorities may be required under PRC law in connection with our offshore securities offering (including equity securities and debt securities) or other activities in overseas capital markets, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval.” Additionally, relevant governmental authorities in the PRC may initiate cybersecurity review if they determine an internet platform operator’s network products or services or data processing activities affect or may affect national security.
Furthermore, on September 24, 2024, Measures on Network Data Security Management was promulgated, which took effect on January 1, 2025. The regulations regulate network data processing activities, ensure network data security, and promote the lawful, reasonable, and effective use of network data.
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The Administrative Provisions on the Account Information of Internet Users, which was promulgated by the CAC on June 27, 2022 and became effective on August 1, 2022, sets out guidelines on the administration of the account information of internet users. Internet-based information service providers shall perform their responsibilities as the administrative subjects of the account information of internet users, have in place professionals and technical capacity appropriate to the scale of services, and establish, improve and strictly implement the authentication of real identity information, verification of account information, security of information content, ecological governance, emergency responses, protection of personal information and other management systems.
On July 7, 2022, the CAC promulgated the Data Outbound Transfer Security Assessment Measures, or the Security Assessment Measures, which became effective on September 1, 2022. The Security Assessment Measures provide that, among others, data processors shall apply to competent authorities for security assessment when (1) the data processors transferring important data abroad; (2) a CIIO and personal information processor that has processed personal information of more than one million people, transferring personal information abroad; (3) a data processor who has provided personal information of one hundred thousand individuals or sensitive personal information of ten thousand individuals to overseas recipients, in each case as calculated cumulatively, since January 1 of the previous year, and (4) other circumstances where the security assessment of data cross-border transfer is required as prescribed by the CAC. On February 22, 2023, the CAC issued the Measures on the Standard Contract for Outbound Data Transfer of Personal Information, or Personal Information Outbound Transfer Standard Contract Measures, which came into effect on June 1, 2023, and provide for circumstances where personal information processors may transfer personal information abroad by entering into a standard contract, and stipulated detailed compliance requirements.
On February 12, 2025, the Administrative Measures on Personal Information Protection Compliance Audits, or the Measures on Compliance Audits was promulgated by the CAC, which became effective on May 1, 2025. According to the Measures on Compliance Audits, “personal information protection compliance audits” means the examination and evaluation of whether the personal information processing activities by the personal information processors comply with laws and administrative regulations, and personal information processors who process the personal information of more than 10 million people shall conduct personal information protection compliance audits at least once every two years. Furthermore, the Measures on Compliance Audits enumerate the key focus when conducting “personal information protection compliance audits”.
On March 22, 2024, the Provisions on Regulating and Promoting Cross-border Data Transfer, or the Provisions on Cross-border Data Transfer, was proposed by the CAC and became effective, aiming to further regulate and facilitate the legal and orderly transfer of data. The Provisions on Cross-border Data Transfer clarify the circumstances where compliance requirements (such as data outbound transfer security assessment, the execution of personal information outbound transfer standard contract or personal information protection certification) are waived, and the circumstances where such compliance requirements shall be performed, in response to the confusion of various enterprises in practice.
On December 8, 2023, the Administrative Measures on Reporting of Cybersecurity Incidents (Draft for Comment), or the Draft Measures on Reporting of Cybersecurity Incidents, was proposed by the CAC for public comments until January 7, 2024, which stipulates network operators that build and operate networks or provide services through networks within the territory of PRC shall report incidents that endanger cybersecurity accordingly.
Since these laws and regulations in China are relatively new, uncertainties still exist in relation to their interpretation and implementation. Any change in laws and regulations relating to privacy, data protection and information security and any enhanced governmental enforcement action of such laws and regulations could greatly increase our cost in providing our products and services, limit their use or adoption or require certain changes to be made to our operations. If we fail to comply with these new laws and regulations described above, we may be ordered to rectify and terminate any actions that are deemed illegal by the government authorities and become subject to fines and other government sanctions, which may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.
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Complying with these obligations under the PRC Cybersecurity Law, the PRC National Security Law, the Data Security Law, the Personal Information Protection Law, the Cybersecurity Review Measures, the Measures on Network Data Security Management, as well as additional laws and regulations that PRC regulatory bodies may enact in the future, including data security and personal information protection laws could cause us to incur substantial costs and subject us to negative publicity, which could harm our reputation among users and negatively affect the trading prices of our ADSs and/or other securities. In practice, PRC regulators, including the Department of Public Security, the MIIT, the SAMR and the CAC, have been increasingly focused on regulation in the areas of data security and data protection, including for mobile apps, and are enhancing the protection of privacy and data security by rulemaking and enforcement actions at central and local levels. We expect that these areas will receive greater and continued attention and scrutiny from regulators and the public going forward, which could increase our compliance costs and subject us to heightened risks and challenges associated with data security and protection. Any failure to comply with applicable regulations, whether by us, business partners, or other third parties, or as a result of employee error or negligence or otherwise, could result in regulatory enforcement actions, including fines, suspension of business, prohibition against new user registration (even for a short period of time) and revocation of required licenses, against us and have an adverse impact on our business operations and our reputation.
If we fail to adopt new technologies to evolving customer needs or emerging industry standards, our business may be materially and adversely affected.
To remain competitive, we must continue to stay abreast of evolving industry trends and to enhance and improve our technology accordingly. Our success will depend, in part, on our ability to identify, develop, acquire or license leading technologies useful in our business. There can be no assurance that we will be able to use new technologies effectively or adapt our mobile apps to meet customer requirements. If we are unable to adapt in a cost-effective and timely manner in response to changing market conditions or customer preferences, whether for technical, legal, financial or other reasons, our business may be materially and adversely affected.
Security breaches and attacks against our technology systems, and any potentially resulting breach or failure to otherwise protect confidential and proprietary information, could damage our reputation and negatively impact our business, as well as materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.
Although we have employed significant resources to develop our security measures against breaches, our cybersecurity measures may not detect or prevent all attempts to compromise our systems, including distributed denial-of-service attacks, viruses, malicious software, break-ins, phishing attacks, social engineering, security breaches or other attacks and similar disruptions that may jeopardize the security of information stored in and transmitted by our systems or that we otherwise maintain. Breaches of our cybersecurity measures could result in unauthorized access to our systems, misappropriation of information or data, deletion or modification of customer information, or a denial of service or other interruption to our business operations. As techniques used to obtain unauthorized access to or sabotage systems change frequently and may not be known until launched against us or our third-party service providers, we may be unable to anticipate, or implement adequate measures to protect against, these attacks.
We have in the past and are likely again in the future to be subject to these types of attacks, although as of the date of this annual report no such attack has resulted in any material damages or remediation costs. If we are unable to avert these attacks and security breaches, we could be subject to significant legal and financial liability, our reputation would be harmed and we could sustain substantial lost sales and customer dissatisfaction. We may not have the resources or technical sophistication to anticipate or prevent rapidly evolving types of cyberattacks. Actual or anticipated attacks and risks may cause us to incur significantly higher costs, including costs to deploy additional personnel and network protection technologies, train employees and engage third-party experts and consultants.
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We are subject to risks related to the payment methods we accept, including uncertainties in regulations governing payment processing and risks relating to third-party payment providers.
We are subject to various rules, regulations and requirements, regulatory or otherwise, and governing payment processing, which could change or be reinterpreted to make it difficult or impossible for us to comply. For example, according to Announcement No. 10 (2018) of the People’s Bank of China issued in July 2018 (the “Announcement No. 10”), companies that refuse to accept cash payment should rectify such noncompliance. According to People’s Bank of China’s interpretation of Announcement No. 10, e-commerce platforms, self-service counters and other companies (i) that offer products and services online and in a cashier-less manner, (ii) whose entire customer purchase process does not involve payment or receipt of cash, and (iii) who have obtained consent from customers to use electronic payment methods, may use electronic payment methods instead of accepting cash. The People’s Bank of China further issued Announcement No. 18 (2020) in December 2020 (the “Announcement No. 18”). Pursuant to Announcement No. 18, large and medium-sized commercial institutions including catering service providers shall establish cash collection and payment channels at their business places. If all transactions, payments, and services are completed through the internet, business entities shall publicize payment methods in advance. The People’s Bank of China, together with the National Development and Reform Commission and the State Financial Regulatory Administration, has promulgated the Provisions on the Receipt, Payment and Services of Renminbi Cash, which became effective on February 1, 2026. Pursuant to Provisions, entities that collect payments manually, provide services in person, and conduct transactions through online reservations followed by offline service delivery or goods handover—where conditions allow for in-person cash collection—shall support cash payments and maintain adequate change reserves. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been subject to monetary penalties in connection with such noncompliance. However, we cannot assure you that the relevant governmental authorities will have the same interpretation. If we fail to comply with these rules or requirements, we may be subject to fines and higher transaction fees or no longer be able to offer certain payment methods, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.
In addition, we accept a variety of payment methods, including, but not limited to, Weixin Pay, Alipay and Union Pay. We pay these payment providers varying service fees, which may increase over time and raise our operating costs. We may also be subject to fraud, security breaches and other illegal activities in connection with the various payment methods we offer.
We use software licensed from third parties. Our ability to provide customers with a high-quality online experience also depends on the satisfactory performance, reliability and availability of software licensed from third parties.
We use software licensed from third parties. Any system interruptions caused by telecommunications failures, computer viruses, or hacking or other attempts to harm the software licensed from third parties that result in the unavailability of our mobile apps or reduced performance would affect the attractiveness of the services offered on our platform. We may encounter problems when software licensed from third parties is upgraded and undetected programming errors could adversely affect the performance of the software we use to provide our services. In addition, we could be required to seek licenses from third parties in order to continue using the open source software we are permitted to use currently, in which case licenses may not be available on terms that are acceptable to us, or at all. Alternatively, we may need to re-engineer our platform or discontinue the use of portions of the functionality provided by our platforms. Our inability to use third-party software could result in disruptions to our business, or delays in the development of future offerings or enhancements of our existing platforms, which could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.
Unexpected termination of leases, failure to renew the lease of our existing premises or to renew such leases at acceptable terms, or failures to obtain necessary real-estate certificates, could materially and adversely affect our business.
We lease the premises for all of our self-operated stores. It is possible for the lessors to terminate the lease agreement with notice in advance. In addition, the PRC government has the statutory power to acquire any land in the PRC. As a result, we may be subject to compulsory acquisition, closure or demolition of any of the properties on which our stores are situated. Although we may receive liquidated damages or compensation if our leases are terminated unexpectedly, we may be forced to suspend operations of the relevant store and divert management attention, time and costs to find a new site and relocate our store, which will negatively affect our business and results of operations.
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We generally enter into long-term leases of approximately three to five years with an option to renew for our stores. Rent for our leases is typically fixed amounts and subject to annual or biennially incremental increases as stipulated in the lease agreements, variable rent linked to the store performance, or fixed amounts plus a variable rent rate linked to the store performance. We cannot assure you that we would be able to renew the relevant lease agreements without substantial additional cost or increase in the rental cost payable by us. If a lease agreement is renewed at a rent substantially higher than the current rate, or currently existing favorable terms granted by the lessor are not extended, our business and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. If we are unable to renew the leases for our store sites, we will have to close or relocate the store, which could subject us to decoration and other costs and risks, and loss of existing customers, and could have a material and adverse effect on our business and results of operations. In addition, the relocated store may not perform as well as the existing store.
In 2018, we and UCAR Inc. entered into a project cooperation agreement and a strategic cooperation agreement (collectively, the “2018 Agreements”) with the Siming District Government and the Xiamen Municipal Government, respectively, (collectively “Xiamen Government”) pursuant to which we purchased our new headquarters under favorable pricing terms that came with certain commitments, including meeting certain requirements of tax contribution, operating performance and capital investments from 2019 to 2023. We were not able to obtain the real property ownership certificates of the new headquarters under the 2018 Agreements since we did not meet the requirements thereof. In 2024, we entered into a new cooperation agreement with the government of Siming District of Xiamen municipality (the “2024 Agreement”), pursuant to which we are entitled to obtain real property certificates of the new headquarters in batches over a five-year term from 2022 to 2026 upon satisfaction of certain requirements of tax contribution, operating performance and capital investments from 2022 to 2026. We have fulfilled our commitments under the 2024 Agreement in 2022 to 2025, and we have obtained certain real property certificates of the new headquarters. However, as of the date of this annual report, we cannot be sure that we will be able to continue to fulfill our commitments under the 2024 Agreement. Therefore, we cannot rule out the risk of contract disputes, such as claims for liquidated damages arising from any failure to fulfill our commitments, under both the 2018 Agreements and 2024 Agreement. Additionally, we cannot assure you that we can successfully obtain the necessary real property certificate. If we are unable to obtain the real property certificate, under applicable PRC property law, the property right of the real estate may not be effectively transferred to us until it is registered by the relevant registration authority, and therefore we may not have the full legal right to use, own or dispose the real estate.
Certain lease agreements of our leased properties have not been registered with the relevant PRC government authorities as required by PRC law, which may expose us to potential fines.
Under PRC law, all lease agreements are required to be registered with the local land and real estate administration bureau. Although failure to do so does not in itself invalidate the leases, the lessees may not be able to defend these leases against bona fide third parties and may also be exposed to potential fines if they fail to rectify such noncompliance within the prescribed time frame after receiving notice from the relevant PRC government authorities. The penalty ranges from RMB1,000 to RMB10,000 for each unregistered lease, at the discretion of the relevant authority. As of the date of this annual report, the lease agreements for some of our leased properties in China, including leased properties for our stores, have not been registered with the relevant PRC government authorities. In the event that any fine is imposed on us for our failure to register our lease agreements, we may not be able to recover such losses from the lessors.
Our rights to use our leased properties could be challenged by property owners or other third parties, which may disrupt our operations and incur relocation costs.
As of the date of this annual report, the lessors of certain of our leased properties in China failed to provide us with valid property ownership certificates or authorizations from the property owners for the lessors to sublease the properties. There is a risk that such lessors may not have the relevant property ownership certificates or the right to lease or sublease such properties to us, in which case the relevant lease agreements may be deemed invalid and we may be forced to vacate these properties, which could interrupt our business operations and incur relocation costs. Moreover, if our lease agreements are challenged by third parties, it could result in diversion of management attention and cause us to incur costs associated with defending such actions, even if such challenges are ultimately determined in our favor.
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We may experience significant liability claims or complaints from customers, or adverse publicity involving our products, our services or our stores.
We face an inherent risk of liability claims or complaints from our customers. Most of the customer complaints we received were related to feedback regarding products not matching customer expectations including in aspects such as taste, quality, and appearance, long waiting times, and the quality of service provided by our staff. We take these complaints seriously and endeavor to reduce such complaints by implementing various remedial measures. Nevertheless, we cannot assure you that we can successfully prevent or address all customer complaints.
Any complaints or claims against us, even if meritless and unsuccessful, may divert management attention and other resources from our business and adversely affect our business and operations. Customers may lose confidence in us and our brand, which may adversely affect our business and results of operations. Furthermore, negative publicity including but not limited to negative online reviews on social media and crowd-sourced review platforms, industry findings or media reports related to food quality, safety, public health concerns, illness, injury or government, whether or not accurate, and whether or not concerning our products, can adversely affect our business, results of operations and reputation.
If we encounter contractual disputes or dispute of other natures with our suppliers, business partners and other third parties, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.
We deal with and enter into contracts with our suppliers, business partners and other third parties in our ordinary course of business. If we encounter contractual disputes with our suppliers, business partners and other third parties or other claims by such parties, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. The contractual terms between us and our suppliers, business partners or other third parties vary depending on factors such as our business needs, our past dealings with the counterparty, among others. The terms of such contracts are generally negotiated on a case-by-case basis and are commercially reasonable at the time they are entered into. From time to time, there may be contractual disputes between us and suppliers, business partners or other third parties relating to our business.
In addition, we may be subject to other claims relating to our transactions with our suppliers, business partners and other third parties. There are uncertainties as to whether any of them would evolve into litigation or other formal proceedings. Any such disputes may not only be costly and time-consuming to solve, but may also harm our reputation, subject us to contractual liabilities or significant settlement amounts, or otherwise adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.
We, our directors, management and employees may be subject to litigation and regulatory investigations and proceedings, such as claims in relation to commercial, food safety, labor, employment, privacy, information security, antitrust, securities matters or any other subject, and may not always be successful in defending ourselves against such claims or proceedings.
We face potential liability, expenses for legal claims and harm due to our business nature. For example, customers could assert legal claims against us in connection with personal injuries related to food poisoning or tampering. The PRC government, media outlets and public advocacy groups have been increasingly focused on customer protection in recent years. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview— Regulation—Regulations Relating to Customer Rights Protection.” Sales of defective products may expose us to liabilities associated with customer protection laws. Sellers are responsible for compensation on customer’s loss even if the contamination of food is not caused by the sellers. Thus, we may also be held liable if our suppliers or other business partners fail to comply with applicable food-safety related rules and regulations. Though we can ask the responsible parties for indemnity, our reputation could still be adversely affected.
From time to time, we are subject to legal and administrative proceedings and claims arising in the ordinary course of business relating to, among other things, lease and other commercial disputes, contract disputes, trademark and other intellectual property infringement claims, personal injury claims and employment-related claims, such as wage and hour and wrongful termination. Unless otherwise indicated, we cannot reasonably predict the outcome of these legal proceedings, nor can we estimate the amount of loss, or range of loss, if any, that may result from these proceedings. An adverse outcome in certain of these proceedings could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations, and could cause the market value of our ADSs and/or other securities to decline. In addition, our directors, management and employees may from time to time be subject to litigation and regulatory investigations and proceedings or otherwise face potential liability and expense in relation to commercial, labor, employment, privacy, information security, antitrust, securities or other matters, which could adversely affect our reputation and results of operations.
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As a public company, we may face additional exposure to claims and lawsuits. We had been and may, in the future, be subject to a number of legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries by governmental agencies, as well as a number of lawsuits filed by purchasers of our securities, including class action lawsuits. See “Item 8. Financial Information—8.A. Consolidated Statements and Other Financial Information—Legal Proceedings” for more details. We anticipate that we will continue to be a target for lawsuits in the future, including other class action lawsuits. There can be no assurance that we will be able to prevail in our defense or reverse any unfavorable judgment on appeal, and we may decide to settle lawsuits on unfavorable terms. Any adverse outcome of these cases, including any plaintiffs’ appeal of the judgment in these cases, could result in payments of substantial monetary damages or fines, or changes to our business practices, and thus have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and reputation. In addition, there can be no assurance that our insurance carriers will cover all or part of the defense costs, or any liabilities that may arise from these matters. Following disclosure of the Fabricated Transactions, we have had difficulties in obtaining desirable insurance coverage, or any insurance coverage, regarding legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries, and we cannot assure you with any certainty that we will be able to obtain such coverage in the future. The litigation process may utilize a significant portion of our cash resources and divert management’s attention from the day-to-day operations of our company, all of which could harm our business. We also may be subject to claims for indemnification related to these matters, and we cannot predict the impact that indemnification claims may have on our business or financial results.
Allegations against us or our management may harm our reputation and have a material and adverse impact on our business, results of operations and cash flows.
We have been, and may become, subject to allegations brought by our competitors, customers, business partners, short sellers, investment research firms or other individuals or entities. Any such allegation, with or without merit, or any perceived unfair, unethical, fraudulent or inappropriate business practice by us or perceived malfeasance by our management could harm our reputation and user base and distract our management from our daily operations. For example, on January 3, 2021, our Board received a letter from certain employees containing allegations against our CEO, Dr. Jinyi Guo. The Board immediately formed an independent panel, led by one of the joint provisional liquidators appointed by the Cayman Court and joined by two independent non-executive directors, to conduct an investigation into the allegations and the circumstances of the letter. The independent panel, with the assistance of outside counsels and forensic accounting experts, conducted a comprehensive and independent investigation into the allegations contained in the letter. On February 17, 2021, we announced that the independent panel found no substantiating evidence with respect to the alleged misconduct in the letter, and had reported its findings to the Board. Allegations against us or our management may also generate negative publicity that significantly harms our reputation, which may materially and adversely affect our user base and our ability to attract customers. In addition to the related cost, managing and defending such allegations can significantly divert management’s attention. All of these could have a material adverse impact on our business, results of operations and cash flows.
We may be subject to intellectual property infringement claims from time to time, which are expensive to defend and may disrupt our business if we are found liable.
We cannot be certain that our operations or any aspects of our business do not or will not infringe upon or otherwise violate intellectual property rights held by third parties. We have been subject to legal proceedings and claims relating to the intellectual property rights of others, such as certain software vendors, from time to time. Such legal proceedings and claims could be costly and divert our management’s attention and other resources from our business and operations.
There could also be existing intellectual property of which we are not aware that our products may inadvertently infringe. Holders of intellectual property purportedly relating to some aspects of our technology platform or business have sought and may continue to seek to enforce such intellectual property against us in China, the United States or any other jurisdictions. To defend against these infringement claims, regardless of their merits, we have incurred and may continue to incur significant expenses, and we have been and may continue to be forced to divert our management’s time and other resources from our business and operations. If we are found to have violated the intellectual property rights of others, we may be subject to significant monetary liabilities for our infringement activities. In that event, we may also be restricted or prohibited from using such intellectual property and thus incur licensing fees or be forced to develop alternatives of our own. These consequences, among others, may substantially disrupt our business and operations, and our financial position and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.
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We may not be able to prevent others from unauthorized use of our intellectual property, which could harm our business and competitive position.
We regard our trademarks, software copyrights, copyright of works, domain names, know-how, proprietary technologies and similar intellectual property as critical to our success. There have been instances where third parties registered social media accounts under names similar to our trademarks in order to gain illegal benefits, against which we have initiated legal proceedings, and we may continue to become an attractive target to such attacks in the future with the increasing recognition of our brand. Any of our intellectual property rights could be challenged, invalidated, circumvented or misappropriated, or such intellectual property may not be sufficient to provide us with competitive advantages. We may also face challenges from third parties relating to the use or ownership of trademarks, domain names and other intellectual property. In addition, there can be no assurance that (i) our pending applications for intellectual property rights will be approved, (ii) all of our intellectual property rights will be adequately protected, or (iii) our intellectual property rights will not be challenged or disputed by third parties, including the ownership of such rights, or found by a judicial authority to be invalid or unenforceable.
We are subject to regulations, and future regulations may impose additional requirements and obligations on our business or otherwise materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.
The industries in which we operate are highly regulated. As China’s coffee industry as well as China’s food and beverage market in general is evolving rapidly and the PRC government is very concerned about customer protection, new laws and regulations may be adopted to address new issues that arise from time to time and to impose additional restrictions on our current business.
As we continue to grow in scale and significance, we expect to face increased scrutiny, which will, at a minimum, result in our having to increase our investment in compliance and related capabilities and systems. The increasing sophistication and development of our customer base will also increase the need for higher standards of customer protection, privacy protection and dispute management. Any increased involvement in inquiries or investigations could result in significantly higher legal and other costs and diversion of management and other resources, as well as negative publicity, which could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.
Our operations depend on the performance of the mobile-based systems, telecommunications networks and digital infrastructure in China.
Our new retail business model relies heavily on mobile-based systems, telecommunications networks and digital infrastructure. We primarily rely on a limited number of telecommunication service providers to provide us with data communications capacity through local telecommunications lines and internet data centers to host our servers. We have limited access to alternative networks or services in the event of disruptions, failures or other problems with internet infrastructure or the fixed telecommunications networks provided by telecommunication service providers that we rely on. With the expansion of our business, we may be required to upgrade our technology and infrastructure to keep up with the increasing traffic on our mobile apps. We cannot assure you that the digital infrastructure and the telecommunications networks we rely on will be able to support the demands associated with the continued growth in digital usage.
In addition, we have no control over the costs of the services provided by telecommunication service providers. If the prices we pay for telecommunications and digital services rise significantly, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. Furthermore, if data access fees or other charges to mobile users increase, our user traffic may decline and our business may be harmed.
If we fail to manage our inventory effectively, our results of operations, financial condition and liquidity may be materially and adversely affected.
Our inventories are mostly coffee beans, coffee condiments, tea leaves, tea powder and pre-made food and beverage items with short shelf life, which require us to manage our inventory effectively. We rely on our demand forecasts for various kinds of raw materials and pre-made products to make purchase decisions and to manage our inventory. Such demand, however, can change significantly between the time inventory is ordered and the date by which we hope to sell it. Demand may be affected by seasonality, new product launches, pricing and discounts, product defects, changes in customer spending patterns, changes in customer tastes and other factors, and our customers may not order products in the quantities that we expect. In addition, when we begin selling a new product, it may be difficult to establish supplier relationships, determine appropriate product selection, and accurately forecast demand. The acquisition of certain types of inventory may require significant lead time and prepayment and they may not be returnable.
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Furthermore, as we plan to continue expanding our product offerings, we expect to include a wider variety of products and raw materials in our inventory, which will make it more challenging for us to manage our inventory and logistics effectively. We cannot guarantee that our inventory levels will be able to meet the demands of customers, which may adversely affect our sales. We also cannot guarantee that all of our inventories can be consumed within their shelf lives. If we fail to manage our inventory effectively, we may be subject to a heightened risk of inventory obsolescence, a decline in inventory value, and significant inventory write-downs or write-offs. Any of the above may materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition. On the other hand, if we underestimate demand for our products, or if our suppliers fail to supply quality raw materials and pre-made products in a timely manner, we may experience inventory shortages, which might result in diminished brand loyalty and lost revenues, any of which could harm our business and reputation.
We have granted share-based awards in the past and will continue to grant share-based awards in the future, which may have an adverse effect on our future profit. Exercise of the share-based awards granted will increase the number of our shares in circulation, which may adversely affect the market price of our shares.
We adopted a share incentive plan in January 2019 (the “2019 Share Option Plan”) to enhance our ability to attract and retain exceptionally qualified individuals and to encourage them to acquire a proprietary interest in our growth and performance. The maximum aggregate number of Ordinary Shares we are authorized to issue pursuant to all awards under the 2019 Share Option Plan is 79,015,500 Ordinary Shares. As of February 28, 2026, 66,695,568 options (excluding any granted options that were subsequently canceled or expired) have been granted and fully vested under the 2019 Share Option Plan, all of which had been exercised. We also adopted an equity incentive plan in January 2021 (the “2021 Equity Incentive Plan”) to retain, attract and motivate employees and directors by providing them with equity incentives. The maximum aggregate number of Ordinary Shares we are authorized to issue pursuant to all awards under the 2021 Equity Incentive Plan is 222,769,232 Ordinary Shares. As of February 28, 2026, restricted share units to receive ADSs representing 200,011,880 Class A Ordinary Shares (excluding any granted restricted share units that were subsequently canceled) have been granted with restricted share units to receive ADSs representing 129,864,920 Class A Ordinary Shares vested under the 2021 Equity Incentive Plan. See “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees—6.B. Compensation—Share Incentive Plan.” For the avoidance of doubt, the 2019 Share Option Plan (and any award offered thereunder) is not replaced or superseded by the 2021 Equity Incentive Plan and both plans continue to operate contemporaneously and independently.
We believe the granting of share-based awards is of significant importance to our ability to attract and retain key personnel and employees, and we expect to grant share-based compensation to employees in the future. As a result, our expenses associated with share-based compensation may increase, which may have an adverse effect on our results of operations.
Climate change may materially adversely affect our business and financial condition.
The impacts of climate change may materially and adversely impact the cost, production and financial performance of our operations. For example, the supply and price of the raw materials and pre-made products we purchase can be affected by multiple factors which may be caused by or exacerbated by climate change. Further, any impacts to our business and financial condition as a result of climate change are likely to occur over a sustained period of time and are therefore difficult to quantify with any degree of specificity. For example, extreme weather events may result in adverse physical effects on portions of our plants and facilities, which could disrupt our supply chain and ultimately our business operations. In addition, disruption of transportation and distribution systems could result in reduced operational efficiency and customer service interruption. Climate related events have the potential to disrupt our business, including the business of our suppliers, and may cause us to experience higher attrition, losses and additional costs to resume operations.
The growth and profitability of our business depend on the level of customer demand and discretionary spending in China. A severe or prolonged downturn in China’s economy could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.
China’s coffee industry as well as China’s food and beverage market in general is affected by macroeconomic factors, including changes in international, national, regional and local economic conditions, employment levels, customer demand and discretionary spending. The majority of our stores are located in China and accordingly, our results of operations are affected by the macroeconomic conditions in China. Any deterioration of the PRC economy, decrease in disposable customer income and fear of a recession may lead to a reduction of customer demand and average spending per customer at our stores, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Moreover, the occurrence of a financial crisis, sovereign debt crisis, banking crisis or other disruptions in the global financial markets may have a material and adverse impact on our operating results.
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Changes in accounting standards and subjective assumptions, estimates and judgments by management related to complex accounting matters could significantly affect our results of operations and financial condition.
Generally accepted accounting principles and related accounting pronouncements, implementation guidelines and interpretations with regard to a wide range of matters that are relevant to our business, including revenue recognition, impairment of long-lived assets and other intangible assets, lease accounting, share-based compensation and recoverability of deferred tax assets are highly complex and involve many subjective assumptions, estimates and judgments. Changes in these rules or their interpretation or changes in underlying assumptions, estimates or judgments could significantly change our reported or expected financial performance or financial condition. New accounting guidance may require systems and other changes that could increase our operating costs and/or change our financial statements.
We have limited insurance coverage, which could expose us to significant costs and business disruption.
We have obtained insurance to cover certain potential risks and liabilities that we face. In particular, following disclosure of the Fabricated Transactions, we have had difficulties in obtaining desirable insurance coverage, or any insurance coverage, regarding legal proceedings, investigations and inquiries, and we cannot assure you with any certainty that we will be able to obtain such coverage in the future. Moreover, insurance companies in China offer limited business insurance products. As a result, we may not be able to acquire insurance for all the potential risks we face in our operations in China, and our coverage may not be adequate to compensate for all losses that may occur, particularly with respect to loss of business or operations. As of the date of this annual report, we may not have adequate business interruption insurance to cover our operations and potential product liabilities.
There can be no assurance that our insurance coverage is sufficient to prevent us from any loss or that we will be able to successfully claim our losses under our current insurance policy on a timely basis, or at all. If we incur any loss that is not covered by our insurance policies, or the compensated amount is significantly less than our actual loss, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.
Risks Relating to Our Corporate Structure
We are a Cayman Islands holding company. As a result, you may experience difficulties in effecting service of legal process, enforcing foreign judgments or bringing actions in China against us or our management based on foreign laws.
We are a holding company with no operations of our own. We conduct substantially all of our operations in China through our subsidiaries in China and substantially all of our assets are located in China. As such, investors in our ADSs are not purchasing equity securities of our subsidiaries that have substantive business operations in China but instead are purchasing equity securities of a Cayman Islands holding company. In addition, all of our directors and executive officers except Mr. Joel A. Getz (namely Hui Li, Dr. Jinyi Guo, Wenbao Cao, Feng Liu, Sean Shao, Qianli Liu, Weihao (Michael) Chen, Jun Liu, Guiyi Chen and Jing An) reside within the PRC for a significant portion of the time. See “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees — 6.A Directors and Senior Management” for the names of our executive officers. As a result, it may be difficult for our shareholders to effect service of process upon us or those persons residing inside China. In addition, China does not have treaties providing for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments of courts with the Cayman Islands, the United States and many other countries and regions.
Therefore, recognition and enforcement in China of judgments of a court in any of these non-PRC jurisdictions in relation to any matter not subject to a binding arbitration provision may be difficult or impossible.
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Our former contractual arrangements in relation to the Former VIE may be subject to scrutiny by the PRC tax authorities, and they may determine that we or the Former VIE owe additional taxes, which could negatively affect our financial condition and the value of your investment.
Historically, we, through the Beijing WFOE, entered into a series of contractual arrangements with the Former VIE as well as its shareholders so that we could hold certain foreign restricted licenses and permits, such as the ICP license, through the Former VIE. In March 2024, we terminated these contractual arrangements. Under applicable PRC laws and regulations, arrangements and transactions among related parties may be subject to audit or challenge by the PRC tax authorities within ten years after the taxable year when the transactions are conducted. We could face material and adverse tax consequences if the PRC tax authorities determine that the historical VIE contractual arrangements were not entered into on an arm’s-length basis in such a way as to result in an impermissible reduction in taxes under applicable PRC laws, rules and regulations, and adjust the income of the Former VIE, if any, in the form of a transfer pricing adjustment. A transfer pricing adjustment could, among other things, result in a reduction of expense deductions recorded by the Former VIE for PRC tax purposes, which could in turn increase its tax liabilities without reducing our PRC subsidiaries’ tax expenses. In addition, the PRC tax authorities may impose late payment fees and other penalties on the Former VIE for the adjusted but unpaid taxes according to the applicable regulations. Our financial position could be adversely affected if the Former VIE’s tax liabilities increase or if it is required to pay late payment fees and other penalties.
You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law.
We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Cayman Islands Companies Act (2025 Revision) (the “Companies Act”) and other applicable legislation and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against our directors, actions by our minority shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands have a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, purchasers of our ADS do not have the same standing as purchasers of our Ordinary Shares under Cayman Islands law. Shareholders of Cayman Islands companies may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States.
Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have discretion under our sixth amended and restated articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.
Moreover, certain judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable. Substantially all of our assets are located outside the United States, and substantially all of our operations are conducted in China. In addition, most of our directors and officers are residents of jurisdictions other than the United States. Substantially all of the assets of these persons are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for you to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that you believe that your rights have been infringed under the U.S. federal securities laws or otherwise. Even if you are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands and of China may render you unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers.
As a result of all of the above, investors who purchase our ADS may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by our management or the Board than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States.
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Centurium Capital, our controlling shareholder, has had and will continue to have effective control over the outcome of shareholder actions in our company. The interests of Centurium Capital may not be aligned with the interests of our other shareholders and holders of the ADSs.
As of February 28, 2026, Centurium Capital, our controlling shareholder, beneficially owns through its affiliates 7.6% of our total Class A Ordinary Shares, 100.0% of our total Class B Ordinary Shares and 100.0% of our total Senior Preferred Shares, representing 47.8% of the voting power of all of our Ordinary Shares and Senior Preferred Shares as a single class. See “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees—6.E. Share Ownership.” Centurium Capital’s voting power gives it the power to control certain actions that require shareholder approval under Cayman Islands law and our memorandum and articles of association, including authorization of a plan of merger, changes to our memorandum and articles of association and an increase of our authorized share capital.
Centurium Capital’s voting control may cause transactions to occur that might not be beneficial to our other shareholders or you as a holder of the ADSs and may prevent transactions that could have been beneficial to our other shareholders or to you. For example, Centurium Capital’s voting control may prevent a transaction involving a change of control in us, including transactions in which you as a holder of the ADSs might otherwise receive a premium for the ADSs over the then-current market price. In addition, Centurium Capital is not prohibited from selling the controlling interest in us to a third party and may do so without your approval and without providing for a purchase of your ADSs. If Centurium Capital is acquired, otherwise undergoes a change of control or is subject to a corporate restructuring, an acquirer, successor or other third party may be entitled to exercise the voting control and contractual rights of Centurium Capital, and may do so in a manner that could vary significantly from that of Centurium Capital.
Risks Relating to Doing Business in China
Changes in China’s economic, political or social conditions or government policies could have a material adverse effect on our business and operations. The PRC government exerts substantial influence over the manner in which we conduct our business and may intervene in our offerings conducted overseas or foreign investment in China-based issuer. Any actions by the PRC government to exert more oversight and discretion could result in a material adverse change in our operations, which may consequently have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations and our future prospects or hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors. In such events, our Ordinary Shares and ADSs could decline in value or become worthless.
Substantially all of our assets and operations are located in China. Accordingly, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may be influenced to a significant degree by political, economic and social conditions in China generally. The Chinese economy may be affected by the level of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, rules regarding foreign exchange and allocation of resources etc. Our financial condition, results of operations and prospects are, to a material extent, subject to economic, political, and legal developments in China. Although the Chinese government has implemented measures emphasizing the utilization of market forces for economic reform, the reduction of state ownership of productive assets, and the establishment of improved corporate governance in business enterprises, if the macroeconomic condition or government policies in China experiences significant adverse changes, demand for our ability to maintain our operations may suffer, which will consequently have a material adverse effect on our financial conditions, results of operations and our future prospects. In addition, the Chinese government continues to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. China’s economic growth is effected by series of governmental measures, such as allocating resources, controlling payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policy and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies. Specifically, the PRC government has significant oversight over the conduct of our business, if we fail to do business in compliance, we may potentially suffer a material adverse effect on our operations. The PRC government has also recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight over securities offerings that are conducted overseas and foreign investment in China-based issuers, which could impact our ability to raise capital in international capital markets. Any such action could significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors and cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or be worthless.
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While the Chinese economy has experienced significant growth over past decades, any adverse changes in economic conditions in China, in the policies of the Chinese government or in the laws and regulations in China could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of China. Such developments could adversely affect our business and operating results, lead to a reduction in demand for our products and adversely affect our competitive position. The Chinese government has implemented various measures to encourage economic growth and guide the allocation of resources. Some of these measures may benefit the overall Chinese economy, but may have a negative effect on us. For example, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected by government control over capital investments or changes in tax regulations. In addition, in the past the Chinese government has implemented certain measures, including interest rate adjustment, to control the pace of economic growth. These measures may cause decreased economic activity in China, which may adversely affect our business and operating results.
Moreover, the PRC government has significant authority to exert influence on the ability of a China-based company, like us, to conduct its business, accept foreign investments or be listed on a U.S. stock exchange. For example, we face risks associated with recent statements and regulatory actions by the PRC government, including those related to regulatory approvals of offshore securities offerings, anti-monopoly regulatory investigations and actions, cybersecurity and data privacy compliance; also, the PRC government has recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight over overseas securities offerings and published a series of laws and regulations to regulate such transactions. See “Item 4. Information on the Company–4.A. History and Development of the Company–Recent Regulatory Development” for more information about these new laws and regulations. If the CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies determine that prior approval is required for any of our offerings of securities overseas or other activities in overseas capital markets, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to obtain such approval in a timely manner, or at all. The CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies may also take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, not to proceed with such activities. If we proceed with any of such activities without obtaining the CSRC’s, CAC’s or other PRC regulatory agencies’ approval to the extent it is required, or if we are unable to comply with any new regulatory requirements, we may face regulatory actions or other sanctions from the CSRC, CAC or other PRC regulatory agencies. These regulatory agencies may impose fines and penalties on our operations in China, limit our ability to pay dividends outside of China or accept foreign investments, delay or restrict the repatriation of the proceeds from offering of securities overseas into China or take other actions that could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs.
As the PRC legal system and regulatory environment continue to rapidly evolve, the PRC government has recently published new policies that affected various industries, and we cannot rule out the possibility that it will in the future release regulations or policies regarding our industry that could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. While we believe that our business operations comply with relevant PRC laws and regulations currently in force in all material respects, we cannot guarantee that new rules or regulations promulgated in the future will not impose any additional requirement on us or otherwise tighten the regulations on companies like us. Any such action, once taken by the PRC government, could cause the value of our securities to significantly decline or become worthless.
Changes in laws, regulations and policies in China could adversely affect us. We could be adversely affected by uncertainties with respect to the PRC legal system because the interpretations and enforcement of many laws, regulations, and rules may be subject to changes. Since the PRC legal system and regulatory environment continue to rapidly evolve, rules and regulations in China can change quickly with little advance notice.
We face various legal and operational risks and uncertainties as a company based in and primarily operating in China due to constant evolution of the social, legal, and economic environments. Rules and regulations in China can change quickly with little advance notice. In addition, the interpretation, as the regulatory environment continues to rapidly evolve, the interpretations and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations involve additional uncertainties. The PRC legal system is a civil law system based on written statutes. Unlike the common law system, prior court decisions under the civil law system may be cited for reference but have limited precedential value.
In the late 1970s, the PRC government began to promulgate a comprehensive system of laws and regulations governing economic matters in general. The overall effect of legislation over the past several decades has significantly increased the protections afforded to various forms of foreign or private-sector investment in China. Our PRC subsidiaries are subject to various PRC laws and regulations generally applicable to companies in China. However, since these laws and regulations are relatively new, and the PRC legal system and regulatory environment continue to rapidly evolve, the interpretations and enforcement of many laws, regulations and rules may be difficult to evaluate the outcome of administrative and court proceedings and the level of legal protection we enjoy.
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These uncertainties may affect our judgment on the relevance of legal requirements and our ability to enforce our contractual rights or tort claims.
If the PCAOB is prevented from fully evaluating audits and quality control procedures of our auditor, investors may be deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections.
Our auditor, the independent registered public accounting firm that issues the audit report included elsewhere in this annual report, as an auditor of companies that are traded publicly in the United States and a firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), or the PCAOB, is subject to laws in the United States pursuant to which the PCAOB conducts regular inspections to assess its compliance with the applicable professional standards.
On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued the HFCA Act Determination Report to notify the SEC of its determinations that the PCAOB was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong, including our auditor. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB announced that it was able to conduct inspections and investigations of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong in 2022. The PCAOB vacated its previous 2021 Determinations accordingly. However, whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections and investigations of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our, and our auditor’s, control, including positions taken by authorities of the PRC. If the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong and we continue to use such accounting firm to conduct audit work, investors may be deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections.
Trading in our ADSs on the OTC may be prohibited under the HFCA Act, if the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect or fully investigate our auditors. The prohibition of trading in our ADSs on the OTC may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment. If this happens there is no certainty that we will be able to list our Ordinary Shares on a non-U.S. exchange or that a market for our Ordinary Shares will develop outside the United States.
As an auditor of companies that are publicly traded in the United States and a firm registered with the PCAOB, our independent registered public accounting firm is required under the laws of the United States to undergo regular inspections by the PCAOB. However, because substantially all of our operations are conducted within China, our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit documentation related to their audit report included in this Form 20-F is located in China. Prior to 2022, the PCAOB was unable to conduct full inspections in China or review audit documentation located within China without the approval of Chinese authorities, which was not granted. Accordingly, prior to 2022, the PCAOB had not inspected our independent registered public accounting firm or reviewed documentation related to the audit of our financial statements.
Inspections of other auditors conducted by the PCAOB outside of China have at times identified deficiencies in those auditors’ audit procedures and quality control procedures, which may be addressed as part of the inspection process to improve future audit quality. The previous lack of PCAOB inspections of audit work undertaken in China prevented the PCAOB from evaluating our auditor’s audits and its quality control procedures. Without the benefit of PCAOB inspections, shareholders and investors may lose confidence in our reported financial information and procedures and the quality of our financial statements. Additionally, pursuant to the HFCAA and related legislation, a company whose auditor is unable to be inspected for two consecutive years may have its securities delisted from the U.S. national securities exchanges.
In 2022, the PCAOB announced that it signed a Statement of Protocol with the CSRC and the Ministry of Finance, which it described as the first step toward opening access for the PCAOB to inspect and investigate completely registered public accounting firms in mainland China and Hong Kong and subsequently vacated its 2021 determination that the positions taken by authorities in mainland China and Hong Kong prevented it from inspecting and investigating completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in those jurisdictions.
In view of the PCAOB’s decision to vacate its 2021 determination and until such time as the PCAOB issues any new adverse determination, the SEC has stated that there are no issuers at risk of having their securities subject to a trading prohibition under the HFCAA. However, whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our control.
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If the PCAOB in the future makes another determination it is not able to inspect and investigate completely registered public accounting firms in mainland China and Hong Kong, the Company will again become a Commission-Identified Issuer and subject to potential delisting pursuant to the HFCAA. Such delisting would limit the liquidity of our common stock and our access to U.S. capital markets, and could increase the volatility of the trading price of our stock, and as a result the market price of our common stock could be materially adversely affected.
Various legislative and regulatory developments related to overseas -listed China-based companies and other developments due to political tensions between the United States and China may have a material adverse impact on our listing and trading in the United States and the trading prices of our ADSs.
We may be affected by the legislative and regulatory developments related to overseas -listed China-based companies. For example, on July 6, 2021, the General Office of the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued Several Opinions Concerning Lawfully and Strictly Cracking Down Illegal Securities Activities, pursuant to which the supervision of overseas listed China-based companies will be strengthened and the development of relevant regulatory systems in the PRC will be promoted. Furthermore, according to the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, which became effective on March 31, 2023, an overseas listed company shall file with the CSRC within three business days after the completion of its subsequent securities offering on the same market, and an overseas listed company shall file with the CSRC within three business days after its application of offering and listing on a different market. If an overseas listed company purchase PRC domestic assets through a single or multiple acquisitions, share swaps, shares transfers or other means, and such purchase constitutes direct or indirect listing of PRC domestic assets, a filing with the CSRC is also required. In addition, an overseas listed company is required to report to the CSRC the occurrence of any of the following material events within three business days after the occurrence and announcement thereof: (i) a change of control of the listed company; (ii) the investigation, sanction or other measures undertaken by any foreign securities regulatory agencies or relevant competent authorities in respect of the listed company; (iii) a change of listing status or transfer of listing segment; and (iv) the voluntary or mandatory delisting of the listed company. If there is any material change of the principal business of the listed company after the overseas offering and listing so that the listed company is no longer required to file with the CSRC, it shall file a specific report and a legal opinion issued by a domestic law firm to the CSRC within three business days after the occurrence hereof. Furthermore, on July 30, 2021, Gary Gensler, the chair of the SEC, released a statement that, among other things, outlined efforts by the SEC to seek certain disclosures from offshore issuers associated with China-based operating companies before their registration statements will be declared effective. The statement also indicated efforts of the SEC to engage in targeted additional reviews of filings for companies with significant China-based operations. Recently, there have been heightened tensions in international economic relations, such as those between the United States and China, but also as a result of the conflict in Ukraine and sanctions on Russia. In addition, the political tensions between the United States and China have escalated due to, among other things, trade disputes, sanctions imposed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury (the “Treasury”) on certain officials of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the central government of the PRC and the president executive orders in August 2020 that prohibit certain transactions with certain Chinese companies and their applications. Rising political tensions could reduce levels of trades, investments, technological exchanges and other economic activities between the two major economies, which would have a material adverse effect on global economic conditions and the stability of global financial markets. Any of these factors could have a material adverse effect on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, there have been recent media reports on deliberations within the U.S. government regarding potentially limiting or restricting China-based companies from accessing U.S. capital markets. If any such deliberations were to materialize, the resulting legislation may have material and adverse impact on the stock performance of China-based issuers listed in the United States. Our ADS prices may be materially and adversely affected in light of any such developments.
Cash in our business in the PRC may not be available to fund operations or for other use outside of the PRC due to the rules and restrictions under relevant PRC laws and regulations regarding the transfer of cash. We may rely on dividends and other distributions on equity paid by our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have, and any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to make payments to us could have a material and adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business. In particular, the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends may be subject to foreign exchange restrictions and dividends may be paid only out of the distributable profits of our PRC subsidiaries as defined under the PRC laws and regulations.
We are a Cayman Islands holding company and we rely principally on dividends and other distributions on equity from our PRC subsidiaries for our cash requirements, including for services of any debt we may incur. To the extent cash in the business is in the PRC or a PRC entity, the funds may not be available to fund operations or for other use outside of the PRC due to rules and restrictions under the PRC laws and regulations applicable to Luckin Coffee Inc. or its subsidiaries to transfer cash.
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Our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends is based upon their distributable earnings. Current PRC regulations permit our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends to their respective shareholders only out of their accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with PRC accounting standards and regulations. In addition, each of our PRC subsidiaries is required to set aside at least 10% of its after-tax profits each year, if any, to fund a statutory reserve until such reserve reaches 50% of its registered capital. Before January 1, 2020, each of our PRC subsidiaries as a Foreign Invested Enterprise (the “FIE”), is also required to further set aside a portion of its after-tax profits to fund the employee welfare fund, although the amount to be set aside, if any, is determined at its discretion. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. If our PRC subsidiaries incur debt on their own behalf in the future, the instruments governing the debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends or make other payments to us. Any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to distribute dividends or other payments to their respective shareholders could materially and adversely limit our ability to grow, make investments or acquisitions that could be beneficial to our business, pay dividends or otherwise fund and conduct our business.
In addition, the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules provide that a withholding tax rate of up to 10% will be applicable to dividends payable by Chinese companies to non-PRC-resident enterprises unless otherwise exempted or reduced according to treaties or arrangements between the PRC central government and governments of other countries or regions where the non-PRC resident enterprises are incorporated.
For details about the applicable PRC regulations and rules relating to such cash transfers through our Group, see “Item 4. Information on the Company–4.A. History and Development of the Company–Recent Regulatory Development–Regulations on Foreign Exchange and the Ability to Transfer Cash between Entities, Across Borders and to U.S. Investors.” and “– Governmental control of currency conversion may limit our ability to utilize our revenues effectively and affect the value of your investment.”
The approval, filing or other requirements of the CSRC, the CAC or other PRC government authorities may be required under PRC law in connection with our offshore securities offering (including equity securities and debt securities) or other activities in overseas capital markets, and, if required, we cannot predict whether or for how long we will be able to obtain such approval.
The Opinions on Strictly Cracking Down on Illegal Securities Activities emphasized the need to strengthen the administration over “illegal securities activities” and the supervision on overseas listings by China-based companies, and proposed to take effective measures, such as promoting the construction of relevant regulatory systems to deal with the risks and incidents faced by China-based overseas listed companies.
On February 17, 2023, the CSRC released the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and five supporting guidelines, which came into effect on March 31, 2023. According to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, (1) domestic companies that seek to offer or list securities overseas, both directly and indirectly, should fulfill the filing procedure and report relevant information to the CSRC; if a domestic company fails to complete the filing procedure or conceals any material fact or falsifies any major content in its filing documents, such domestic company may be subject to administrative penalties, such as order to rectify, warnings, fines, and its controlling shareholders, actual controllers, the person directly in charge and other directly liable persons may also be subject to administrative penalties, such as warnings and fines; (2) if the issuer meets both of the following conditions, the overseas offering and listing shall be determined as an indirect overseas offering and listing by a domestic company: (i) any of the total assets, net assets, revenues or profits of the domestic operating entities of the issuer in the most recent accounting year accounts for more than 50% of the corresponding figure in the issuer’s audited consolidated financial statements for the same period; (ii) its major operational activities are carried out in China or its main places of business are located in China, or the senior managers in charge of operation and management of the issuer are mostly Chinese citizens or are domiciled in China; and (3) where a domestic company seeks to indirectly offer and list securities in an overseas market, the issuer shall designate a major domestic operating entity responsible for all filing procedures with the CSRC, and where an issuer makes an application for listing in an overseas market, the issuer shall submit filings with the CSRC within three business days after such application is submitted.
On the same day, the CSRC also held a press conference for the release of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and issued the Notice on Administration for the Filing of Overseas Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, which, among others, clarifies that the domestic companies that have already been listed overseas on or before the effective date of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures (i.e., March 31, 2023) shall be deemed as existing issuers, or the Existing Issuers. Existing Issuers are not required to complete the filling procedures, and they shall be required to file with the CSRC when subsequent matters such as refinancing are involved.
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According to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, an overseas listed company shall file with the CSRC within three business days after the completion of its subsequent securities offering on the same market, and an overseas listed company shall file with the CSRC within three business days after its application of its offering and listing on a different market. If an overseas listed company purchase PRC domestic assets through a single or multiple acquisitions, share swaps, shares transfers or other means, and such purchase constitutes direct or indirect listing of PRC domestic assets, a filing with the CSRC is also required. In addition, an overseas listed company is required to report to the CSRC the occurrence of any of the following material events within three business days after the occurrence and announcement thereof: (i) a change of control of the listed company; (ii) the investigation, sanction or other measures undertaken by any foreign securities regulatory agencies or relevant competent authorities in respect of the listed company; (iii) a change of listing status or transfer of listing segment; and (iv) the voluntary or mandatory delisting of the listed company. If there is any material change of the principal business of the listed company after the overseas offering and listing so that the listed company is no longer required to file with the CSRC, it shall file a specific report and a legal opinion issued by a domestic law firm to the CSRC within three business days after the occurrence hereof.
In addition, on December 28, 2021, the CAC and several other regulatory authorities in China jointly promulgated the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which came into effect on February 15, 2022 and replaced its previous version promulgated on April 13, 2020. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, (i) where the relevant activity affects or may affect national security, a CIIO that purchases network products and services, or an internet platform operator that conducts data process activities, shall be subject to the cybersecurity review, (ii) an application for cybersecurity review shall be made by an issuer who is an internet platform operator holding personal information of more than one million users before such issuer applies to list its securities on a foreign stock exchange, and (iii) relevant governmental authorities in the PRC may initiate cybersecurity review if they determine an operator’s network products or services or data processing activities affect or may affect national security. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been required to go through a cybersecurity review by the CAC or other regulatory approvals. In addition, (a) from time to time we have been communicating with the competent authorities and will closely monitor and assess further regulatory developments regarding cybersecurity and data privacy laws, including the development on cybersecurity review, and comply with the latest regulatory requirements; (b) we endeavor to improve our data security protection technologies and plan to engage external professional consultants to advise us on cybersecurity and data protection requirements, if needed. However, there remain uncertainties as to how the Cybersecurity Review Measures would be interpreted and enforced, and to what extent it may affect us.
If we do not receive prior approval or complete the filing, to the extent it is required, for any of our future offerings of securities overseas or other activities in overseas capital markets, or if we inadvertently conclude that such prior approval or any filing is not required, the CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies may take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, not to proceed with such activities. If we proceed with any of such activities without obtaining these regulatory agencies’ approval or completing the filing to the extent it is required, or if we are unable to comply with any new regulatory requirements, we may face regulatory actions or other sanctions from these regulatory agencies. These regulatory agencies may impose fines and penalties on our operations in China, limit our ability to pay dividends outside China, limit our operating privileges in China, delay or restrict the repatriation of the proceeds from offering of securities overseas into China or take other actions that could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of the ADSs. Additionally, if the CSRC or other relevant PRC regulatory agencies subsequently determine that such approval is required, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to obtain such approval in a timely manner, or at all. See also “Item 4. Information on the Company–4.A. History and Development of the Company–Recent Regulatory Development –Potential CSRC Approval Required for Future Overseas Securities Offering or Other Activities in Overseas Capital markets” for details of potential approval requirements under the current PRC laws and regulations.
On January 5, 2023, the NDRC promulgated the Administrative Measures for the Approval and Registration of Medium and Long-term Foreign Debts of Enterprises, or the NDRC Measures, effective on February 10, 2023. Pursuant to the NDRC Measures, if a PRC enterprise or an offshore enterprise controlled by a PRC enterprise wishes to issue bonds outside the PRC with a maturity of more than one year, such PRC enterprise must, in advance of issuing such bonds, file certain prescribed documents with the NDRC and obtain a registration certificate from the NDRC in respect of such issue. According to the NDRC Measures, the NDRC will decide whether to accept a submission within five working days upon receipt of the submission and is expected to issue a registration certificate within three months after it accepts the submission. The enterprise must also report certain details of the bonds to the NDRC within 10 business days upon the completion of the bond issuance. Accordingly, we are required to complete the NDRC registration for any note offering outside the PRC and with a maturity of more than one year.
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On February 24, 2023, the Provisions on Strengthening the Confidentiality and Archives Administration of Overseas Securities Issuance and Listing by Domestic Enterprises was promulgated, or the Provision on Confidentiality, which became effective on March 31, 2023. Pursuant to the Provision on Confidentiality, where a domestic enterprise publicly discloses or provides documents and materials involving state secrets and working secrets of state organs, or Relevant Documents and Materials, to the relevant securities companies, securities service institutions, overseas regulatory authorities and other entities and individuals, or provides or publicly discloses Relevant Documents and Materials through its overseas listing subjects, it shall report to the competent department with the examination and approval authority for approval in accordance with the law, and submit to the secrecy administration department of the same level for filing. Where a domestic enterprise provides accounting archives or copies of such archives to entities and individuals such as securities companies, securities service institutions and overseas regulatory authorities, it shall complete the corresponding procedures pursuant to relevant rules of the State. The working materials formed within the territory of the PRC by the securities companies and securities service institutions that provide corresponding services for the overseas issuance and listing of domestic enterprises shall be kept within the territory of the PRC, and outbound transfers of such materials shall go through approval procedures in accordance with relevant rules of the State.
We may be subject to liability for placing advertisements with content that is deemed inappropriate or misleading under PRC laws.
PRC laws and regulations prohibit advertising companies from producing, distributing or publishing any advertisement with content that violates PRC laws and regulations, impairs the national dignity of the PRC, involves designs of the PRC national flag, national emblem or national anthem or the music of the national anthem, is considered reactionary, obscene, superstitious or absurd, is fraudulent, or disparages similar products. We may be subject to claims by customers misled by information on our mobile apps, website or other portals where we put our advertisements on. We may not be able to recover our losses from advertisers by enforcing the indemnification provisions in the contracts, which may result us in diverting management’s time and other resources from our business and operations to defend against these infringement claims. As a result, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.
We may be subject to laws and regulations in the PRC relating to anti-monopoly and anti- unfair competition.
On February 7, 2021, the Anti-Monopoly Committee of the State Council promulgated the Anti-Monopoly Guidelines for the Internet Platform Economy Sector which prohibits certain monopolistic acts of internet platforms so as to protect market competition and safeguard interests of users and operators participating in internet platform economy, including without limitation, prohibiting platforms with dominant position from abusing their market dominance (such as discriminating customers in terms of pricing and other transactional conditions using big data and analytics, requiring counterparties to trade in restrictive patterns and means, coercing counterparties into exclusivity arrangements, using technology means to block competitors’ interface, favorable positioning in search results of goods displays, using bundle services to sell services or products, compulsory collection of unnecessary user data).
On June 24, 2022, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress promulgated the amended PRC Anti-monopoly Law, which came into effect on August 1, 2022. The amended PRC Anti-monopoly Law further regulates monopolistic behaviors in the Internet sector, which provides, among others, (i) enterprises must not engage in monopolistic behaviors by taking advantage of data and algorithms, technology, capital advantages, or platform rules; and (ii) enterprises with dominant market position must not abuse their dominant positions by taking advantage of data and algorithms, technology, capital advantages, or platform rules.
Furthermore, on May 6, 2024, the SAMR promulgated the Interim Provisions on Anti-Unfair Competition on the Internet, which came into effect on September 1, 2024. The Interim Provisions on Anti-Unfair Competition on the Internet prohibits business operators from using the internet, big data, algorithms or other technical means to affect the choice of users or by other means to conduct traffic hijacking, interference, malicious incompatibility and other acts to impede or destroy the normal business operation of network products or services lawfully provided by other business operators.
The heightened regulatory scrutiny of business operators under the relevant laws and regulations may increase our compliance costs, and subject us to heightened risks and challenges. We cannot assure you that our business operations comply with the regulations and authorities’ requirements in all respects. If we are found to have any non-compliance issues by relevant authorities, we may be subject to fines and other penalties, and our reputation and business operations may be materially and adversely affected.
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Our employment practices may be adversely impacted under the labor contract law of the PRC.
The PRC National People’s Congress promulgated the Labor Contract Law, which became effective on January 1, 2008 and was amended on December 28, 2012, and the State Council promulgated implementing rules for the labor contract law on September 18, 2008. The labor contract law and the implementing rules impose requirements concerning, among others, the execution of written contracts between employers and employees, the time limits for probationary periods, and the length of employment contracts. The interpretation and implementation of these regulations are still evolving, our employment practices may violate the labor contract law and related regulations and we could be subject to penalties, fines or legal fees as a result. If we are subject to severe penalties or incur significant legal fees in connection with labor law disputes or investigations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.
We may be subject to additional contributions of social insurance and housing fund and late payments and fines imposed by relevant governmental authorities.
Companies operating in China are required to participate in various government-sponsored employee benefit plans, including certain social insurance, housing funds and other welfare-oriented payment obligations, and contribute to the plans in amounts equal to certain percentages of salaries, including bonuses and allowances. The relevant government authorities may examine whether an employer has made adequate payments of the requisite employee benefit payments, and employers who fail to make adequate payments may be subject to late payment fees, fines and/or other penalties.
According to Notice of the General Office of the State Council on Accelerating the Reform of the “Five in One” and “One License One Code” Registration System, PRC subsidiaries shall no longer separately obtain any social insurance registration certificate. Under the Regulations on the Administration of Housing Fund, PRC subsidiaries shall register with applicable housing fund management centers and establish a special housing fund account in an entrusted bank. Both PRC subsidiaries and their employees are required to contribute to the employee benefits.
As of the date of this annual report, all of our PRC subsidiaries have completed the required social insurance and housing fund registration; however, we have not made adequate contributions to social insurance and housing fund for some of our employees. We have recorded accruals for the estimated underpaid amounts of social insurance and housing fund in our financial statements for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025. Going forward, we may be required by relevant government authorities to pay any other outstanding amount, and we may also be subject to late fees or fines. If we fail to make the outstanding employee benefit plans contributions within the prescribed time frame, we may be subject to a fine of up to three times the amount of the overdue payment. If we are otherwise subject to investigations related to noncompliance with labor laws and are imposed severe penalties or incur significant legal fees in connection with labor law disputes or investigations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.
Noncompliance with labor-related laws and regulations of the PRC may have an adverse impact on our financial condition and results of operations.
We have been subject to the regulatory requirements in terms of entering into labor contracts with our employees and paying various statutory employee benefits, including pensions, housing fund, medical insurance, work-related injury insurance, unemployment insurance and childbearing insurance to designated government agencies for the benefit of our employees. Pursuant to the PRC Labor Contract Law, or the Labor Contract Law, that became effective in January 2008 and was amended in December 2012 and its implementing rules that became effective in September 2008, employers are subject to the requirements in terms of signing labor contracts, minimum wages, paying remuneration, determining the term of employees’ probation and unilaterally terminating labor contracts. If we are otherwise subject to investigations related to noncompliance with labor laws when we decide to terminate some of our employees or otherwise change our employment or labor practices and are imposed severe penalties or incur significant legal fees in connection with labor law disputes or investigations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. We engage independent third-party service providers to recruit some outsourced staff. A majority of our part-time storefront staff were such outsourced staff as of December 31, 2025. We believe that we are in compliance with labor-related laws and regulations of the PRC. However, the relevant governmental authorities may take a different view and impose punishment, such as fines, on us.
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As the interpretation and implementation of labor-related laws and regulations are still evolving, our employment practice could violate labor-related laws and regulations in China, which may subject us to labor disputes or government investigations. If we are deemed to have violated relevant labor laws and regulations, we could be required to provide additional compensation to our employees and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.
The custodians or authorized users of our controlling non-tangible assets, including chops and seals, may fail to fulfill their responsibilities, or misappropriate or misuse these assets.
Under PRC law, legal documents for corporate transactions, including agreements and contracts are executed using the chop or seal of the signing entity or with the signature of a legal representative whose designation is registered and filed with relevant PRC industry and commerce authorities.
In order to secure the use of our chops and seals, we have established internal control procedures and rules for using these chops and seals. In any event that the chops and seals are intended to be used, the responsible personnel will submit the application through our office automation system and the application will be verified and approved by authorized employees in accordance with our internal control procedures and rules. In addition, in order to maintain the physical security of our chops, we generally have them stored in secured locations accessible only to authorized employees. Although we monitor such authorized employees, the procedures may not be sufficient to prevent all instances of abuse or negligence. There is a risk that our employees could abuse their authority, for example, by entering into a contract not approved by us or seeking to gain control of one of our subsidiaries. If any employee obtains, misuses or misappropriates our chops and seals or other controlling non-tangible assets for whatever reason, we could experience disruption to our normal business operations, and we may have to take corporate or legal action, which could involve significant time and resources to resolve and divert management from our operations.
PRC regulation of loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies may delay us from using the proceeds of our offshore financing to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries, which could materially and adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.
Any funds we transfer to our PRC subsidiaries, either as a shareholder loan or as an increase in registered capital, are subject to approval by or registration with relevant governmental authorities in China. According to the relevant PRC regulations on FIEs in China, capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries are subject to the reporting obligations to MOFCOM or their respective local branches and registration with a local bank authorized by the State Administration of Foreign Exchange (the “SAFE”). In addition, (i) any foreign loan procured by our PRC subsidiaries is required to be registered with SAFE or their respective local branches and (ii) our PRC subsidiaries may not procure loans which exceed the difference between their respective total investment amount and registered capital. Any medium- or long-term loan to be provided by us to our Former VIE must be registered with the NDRC and SAFE or its local branches. We may not be able to complete such registrations on a timely basis, with respect to future capital contributions or foreign loans by us to our PRC subsidiaries. If we fail to complete such registrations, our ability to use the proceeds of our offshore financing, and to capitalize our PRC operations may be negatively affected, which could adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.
Fluctuations in exchange rates could have a material and adverse effect on our results of operations and the value of your investment.
The value of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar and other currencies may fluctuate and is affected by, among other things, changes in political and economic conditions and the foreign exchange policy adopted by the PRC government. It is difficult to predict how long such depreciation of Renminbi against the U.S. dollar may last and when and how the relationship between the Renminbi and the U.S. dollar may change again. All of our revenues and substantially all of our costs are denominated in Renminbi. We are a holding company and we rely on dividends paid by our operating subsidiaries in China for our cash needs. Any significant revaluation of Renminbi may materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial position reported in Renminbi when translated into U.S. dollars, and the value of, and any dividends payable on, the ADSs in U.S. dollars. To the extent that we need to convert U.S. dollars into Renminbi for our operations, appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar would have an adverse effect on the Renminbi amount we would receive. Conversely, if we decide to convert our Renminbi into U.S. dollars for the purpose of making payments for dividends on our Ordinary Shares, Senior Preferred Shares or the ADSs or for other business purposes, appreciation of the U.S. dollar against the Renminbi would have a negative effect on the U.S. dollar amount.
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Governmental regulations of currency conversion may limit our ability to utilize our revenues effectively and affect the value of your investment.
The PRC government imposes controls on the convertibility of the Renminbi into foreign currencies and, in certain cases, the remittance of currency out of China. We receive substantially all of our revenues in Renminbi. Under our current corporate structure, our Cayman Islands holding company primarily relies on dividend payments from our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have. Under existing PRC foreign exchange regulations, payments of current account items, including profit distributions, interest payments and trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, can be made in foreign currencies without prior approval of SAFE by complying with certain procedural requirements. Specifically, under the existing exchange restrictions, without prior approval of SAFE, cash generated from the operations of our PRC subsidiaries in China may be used to pay dividends to our company. However, approval from or registration with appropriate government authorities is required where Renminbi is to be converted into foreign currency and remitted out of China to pay capital expenses such as the repayment of loans denominated in foreign currencies. As a result, we need to obtain SAFE approval to use cash generated from the operations of our PRC subsidiaries to pay off their respective debt in a currency other than Renminbi owed to entities outside China, or to make other capital expenditure payments outside China in a currency other than Renminbi. The PRC government may at its discretion restrict access to foreign currencies for current account transactions in the future. If the foreign exchange control system prevents us from obtaining sufficient foreign currencies to satisfy our foreign currency demands, we may not be able to pay dividends in foreign currencies to our shareholders, including holders of the ADSs.
Certain PRC regulations may make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions.
The Anti-Monopoly Law promulgated by the Standing Committee of the NPC, which became effective in 2008 and amended in June 2022, and the Provisions on Thresholds for Prior Notification of Concentrations of Undertakings issued by the State Council in 2008 and most recently amended in January 2024, require that where a concentration reaches certain thresholds, a declaration must be lodged in advance with the anti-monopoly law enforcement agency under the State Council, or otherwise the concentration shall not be implemented.
Complying with the requirements of these regulations to complete such transactions could be complex, and any required approval processes, including obtaining approval or clearance from the MOFCOM, may delay or inhibit our ability to complete such transactions, which could affect our ability to expand our business or maintain our market share.
PRC regulations relating to the establishment of offshore special purpose companies by PRC residents may subject our PRC resident beneficial owners or our PRC subsidiaries to liability or penalties, limit our ability to inject capital into our PRC subsidiaries, limit our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to increase their registered capital or distribute profits to us, or may otherwise adversely affect us.
In July 2014, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Control on Domestic Residents’ Offshore Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment Through Special Purpose Vehicles (the “SAFE Circular 37”), to replace the Notice on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Residents’ Financing and Roundtrip Investment Through Offshore Special Purpose Vehicles (the “SAFE Circular 75”), which ceased to be effective upon the promulgation of SAFE Circular 37. SAFE Circular 37 requires PRC residents (including PRC individuals and PRC corporate entities) to register with SAFE or its local branches in connection with their direct or indirect offshore investment activities. SAFE Circular 37 is applicable to our shareholders who are PRC residents and may be applicable to any offshore acquisitions that we make in the future.
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Under SAFE Circular 37, PRC residents who make, or have prior to the implementation of SAFE Circular 37 made, direct or indirect investments in offshore special purpose vehicles (the “SPVs”), will be required to register such investments with SAFE or its local branches. In addition, any PRC resident who is a direct or indirect shareholder of an SPV is required to update its filed registration with the local branch of SAFE with respect to that SPV, to reflect any material change. Moreover, any subsidiary of such SPV in China is required to urge the PRC resident shareholders to update their registration with the local branch of SAFE. If any PRC shareholder of such SPV fails to make the required registration or to update the previously filed registration, the subsidiary of such SPV in China may be prohibited from distributing its profits or the proceeds from any capital reduction, share transfer or liquidation to the SPV, and the SPV may also be prohibited from making additional capital contributions into its subsidiary in China. On February 13, 2015, the SAFE promulgated a Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving Foreign Exchange Administration Policy on Direct Investment (“SAFE Notice 13”), which became effective on June 1, 2015. Under SAFE Notice 13, applications for foreign exchange registration of inbound foreign direct investments and outbound overseas direct investments, including those required under SAFE Circular 37, will be filed with qualified banks instead of SAFE. The qualified banks will directly examine the applications and accept registrations under the supervision of SAFE.
Some of our shareholders that we are aware of are subject to SAFE regulations, and some of our shareholders have completed all necessary registrations with the local SAFE branch or qualified banks as required by SAFE Circular 37. We cannot assure you, however, that all of these individuals have completed all necessary registrations required by SAFE 37 and will continue to make required filings or updates in a timely manner, or at all. We can provide no assurance that we are or will in the future continue to be informed of identities of all PRC residents holding direct or indirect interest in our company. Any failure or inability by such individuals to comply with SAFE regulations may subject us to fines or legal sanctions, such as restrictions on our cross-border investment activities or our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends to, or obtain foreign exchange-denominated loans from, our company or prevent us from making distributions or paying dividends. As a result, our business operations and our ability to make distributions to you could be materially and adversely affected.
Furthermore, these foreign exchange regulations are still relatively new and their interpretation and implementation have been constantly evolving. For example, we may be subject to a more stringent review and approval process with respect to our foreign exchange activities, such as remittance of dividends and foreign-currency-denominated borrowings, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, if we decide to acquire a PRC domestic company, we cannot assure you that we or the owners of such company, as the case may be, will be able to obtain the necessary approvals or complete the necessary filings and registrations required by the foreign exchange regulations. This may restrict our ability to implement our acquisition strategy and could adversely affect our business and prospects.
Any failure to comply with PRC regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee stock incentive plans may subject the PRC plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions.
In February 2012, SAFE promulgated the Notices on Issues Concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plan of Overseas Publicly Listed Company, replacing earlier rules promulgated in 2007. Pursuant to these rules, PRC citizens and non-PRC citizens who reside in China for a continuous period of not less than one year who participate in any stock incentive plan of an overseas publicly listed company, subject to a few exceptions, are required to register with SAFE through a domestic qualified agent, which could be the PRC subsidiaries of such overseas listed company, and complete certain other procedures. In addition, an overseas-entrusted institution must be retained to handle matters in connection with the exercise or sale of stock options and the purchase or sale of shares and interests. We and our executive officers and other employees who are PRC citizens or who reside in the PRC for a continuous period of not less than one year and who have been granted share-based awards are subject to these regulations as our company is an overseas listed company. Failure to complete the SAFE registrations may subject them to fines and legal sanctions, there may be additional restrictions on the ability of them to exercise their stock options or remit proceeds gained from the sale of their stock into the PRC. We also face regulatory uncertainties that could restrict our ability to adopt incentive plans for our directors, executive officers and employees under PRC law. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.B. Business Overview— Regulation—Regulations Relating to Stock Incentive Plans.”
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If our offshore companies are classified as a PRC resident enterprise for PRC enterprise income tax purposes, such classification could result in unfavorable tax consequences to us and our non-PRC shareholders and the ADS holders.
Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules, an enterprise established outside the PRC with its “de facto management body” within the PRC is considered a “resident enterprise” and will be subject to the enterprise income tax on its global income at the rate of 25%. The implementation rules define the term “de facto management body” as the body that exercises full and substantial control and overall management over the business, productions, personnel, accounts and properties of an enterprise. In 2009, the State Administration of Taxation (the “SAT”) issued a circular, known as SAT Circular 82, which provides certain specific criteria for determining whether the “de facto management body” of a PRC-controlled enterprise that is incorporated offshore is located in China. Although this circular applies only to offshore enterprises controlled by PRC enterprises or PRC enterprise groups, not those controlled by PRC individuals or foreigners, the criteria set forth in the circular may reflect the SAT’s general position on how the “de facto management body” text should be applied in determining the tax resident status of all offshore enterprises.
According to SAT Circular 82, an offshore incorporated enterprise controlled by a PRC enterprise or a PRC enterprise group will be regarded as a PRC tax resident by virtue of having its “de facto management body” in China, and will be subject to PRC enterprise income tax on its global income only if all of the following conditions are met: (i) the primary location of the day-to-day operational management is in the PRC; (ii) decisions relating to the enterprise’s financial and human resource matters are made or are subject to approval by organizations or personnel in the PRC; (iii) the enterprise’s primary assets, accounting books and records, company seals, and Board and shareholder resolutions are located or maintained in the PRC; and (iv) at least 50% of voting board members or senior executives habitually reside in the PRC.
We believe our offshore companies (i.e., our companies other than PRC subsidiaries and Former VIE) are not PRC resident enterprises for PRC tax purposes. However, the tax resident status of an enterprise is subject to determination by the PRC tax authorities and uncertainties remain with respect to the interpretation of the term “de facto management body.” If the PRC tax authorities determine that any of our offshore companies is a PRC resident enterprise for enterprise income tax purposes, we would be subject to PRC enterprise income on our worldwide income at the rate of 25%. Furthermore, the Company would be required to withhold a 10% tax from dividends it pays to its shareholders that are non-resident enterprises, including the holders of the ADSs. In addition, non-resident enterprise shareholders (including the ADS holders) may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 10% on gains realized on the sale or other disposition of the ADSs, Senior Preferred Shares or Ordinary Shares, if such income is treated as sourced from within the PRC. Furthermore, if the Company is deemed a PRC resident enterprise, dividends paid to its non-PRC individual shareholders (including the ADS holders) and any gain realized on the transfer of the ADSs, Senior Preferred Shares or Ordinary Shares by such shareholders may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 20% (which, in the case of dividends, may be withheld at source by the Company). These rates may be reduced by an applicable tax treaty, but it is unclear whether non-PRC shareholders of the Company would be able to obtain the benefits of any tax treaties between their country of tax residence and the PRC in the event that the Company is treated as a PRC resident enterprise. Any such tax may reduce the returns on your investment in the ADSs, Senior Preferred Shares or Ordinary Shares.
We face uncertainty with respect to indirect transfers of equity interests in PRC resident enterprises by their non-PRC holding companies.
On February 3, 2015, the SAT issued the Public Notice Regarding Certain Corporate Income Tax Matters on Indirect Transfer of Properties by Non-Tax Resident Enterprises (the “SAT Bulletin 7”). SAT Bulletin 7 extends its tax jurisdiction to transactions involving the transfer of taxable assets through offshore transfer of a foreign intermediate holding company. In addition, SAT Bulletin 7 has introduced safe harbors for internal group restructurings and the purchase and sale of equity through a public securities market. SAT Bulletin 7 also brings challenges to both foreign transferor and transferee (or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer) of taxable assets, as such persons need to determine whether their transactions are subject to these rules and whether any withholding obligation applies.
On October 17, 2017, the SAT issued the Announcement of the State Administration of Taxation on Issues Concerning the Withholding of Non-resident Enterprise Income Tax at Source (the “SAT Bulletin 37”), which came into effect on December 1, 2017. The SAT Bulletin 37 further clarifies the practice and procedure of the withholding of non-resident enterprise income tax.
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Where a non-resident enterprise transfers taxable assets indirectly by disposing of the equity interests of an overseas holding company, which is an Indirect Transfer, the non-resident enterprise as either transferor or transferee, or the PRC entity that directly owns the taxable assets, may report such Indirect Transfer to the relevant tax authority. Using a “substance over form” principle, the PRC tax authority may disregard the existence of the overseas holding company if it lacks a reasonable commercial purpose and was established for the purpose of reducing, avoiding or deferring PRC tax. As a result, gains derived from such Indirect Transfer may be subject to PRC enterprise income tax, and the transferee or other person who pays for the transfer is obligated to withhold the applicable taxes currently at a rate of 10% for the transfer of equity interests in a PRC resident enterprise. Both the transferor and the transferee may be subject to penalties under PRC tax laws if the transferee fails to withhold the taxes and the transferor fails to pay the taxes.
We face uncertainties as to the reporting and other implications of certain past and future transactions where PRC taxable assets are involved, such as offshore restructuring, sale of the shares in our offshore subsidiaries and investments. Our company may be subject to filing obligations or taxed if our company is transferor in such transactions, and may be subject to withholding obligations if our company is transferee in such transactions, under SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37. For transfer of shares in our company by investors who are non-PRC resident enterprises, our PRC subsidiaries may be requested to assist in the filing under SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37. As a result, we may be required to expend valuable resources to comply with SAT Bulletin 7 and/or SAT Bulletin 37 or to request the relevant transferors from whom we purchase taxable assets to comply with these circulars, or to establish that our company should not be taxed under these circulars, which may have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.
Regulation and censorship of information disseminated over the internet in China may adversely affect our business and reputation and subject us to liability for information displayed on our website.
The PRC government has adopted regulations governing internet access and the distribution of news and other information over the internet. Under these regulations, internet content providers and internet publishers are prohibited from posting or displaying over the internet content that, among other things, violates PRC laws and regulations, impairs the national dignity of China, or is reactionary, obscene, superstitious, fraudulent or defamatory. Failure to comply with these requirements may result in the revocation of licenses to provide internet content and other licenses, and the closure of the concerned websites. The website operator may also be held liable for such censored information displayed on or linked to the websites. If our website is found to be in violation of any such requirements, we may be penalized by relevant authorities, and our operations or reputation could be adversely affected.
Risks Relating to the ADSs
Our dual-class share structure with different voting rights limits your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transactions that holders of our Class A Ordinary Shares and the ADSs may view as beneficial.
We have adopted a dual-class share structure such that our Ordinary Shares consist of Class A Ordinary Shares and Class B Ordinary Shares. In respect of matters requiring the votes of shareholders, each Class A Ordinary Share is entitled to one vote and each Class B Ordinary Share is entitled to ten votes. Each Class B Ordinary Share is convertible into one Class A Ordinary Share at any time by the holder thereof. Class A Ordinary Shares are not convertible into Class B Ordinary Shares under any circumstances.
Due to this dual-class share structure, our shareholders have experienced changes to their voting powers when certain Class B Ordinary Shares are converted into Class A Ordinary Shares, and our shareholders may experience future changes in the voting powers resulting from the factors including new Class B share conversion or future share issuances, among others. As of February 28, 2026, Class B Ordinary Shares constituted 5.3% of our total issued and outstanding share capital and 35.7% of the aggregate voting power of our total issued and outstanding share capital. As of February 28, 2026, Centurium Capital and its affiliates hold 100.0% of our Class B Ordinary Shares.
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As a result of this dual-class share structure, the holders of our Class B Ordinary Shares have concentrated control over the outcome of matters put to a vote of shareholders and have significant influence over our business, including decisions regarding mergers, consolidations, liquidations and the sale of all or substantially all of our assets, election of directors and other significant corporate actions. The holders of Class B Ordinary Shares may take actions that are not in the best interest of us or our other shareholders or holders of the ADSs. This concentration of ownership may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could have the effect of depriving our other shareholders of the opportunity to receive a premium for their shares as part of a sale of our company and may reduce the trading price of the ADSs. This concentrated control limits your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A Ordinary Shares and ADSs may view as beneficial. In addition, future issuances of Class B Ordinary Shares may be dilutive to the holders of Class A Ordinary Shares. As a result, the market price of our Class A Ordinary Shares could be adversely affected.
Our Senior Preferred Shares have rights, preferences and privileges that are not held by, and are preferential to, the rights of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs, which could result in the interests of the holders of our Senior Preferred Shares differing from those of the holders of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs.
In April 2021, we announced that we had entered into an investment agreement (the “Investment Agreement”) with an affiliate of Centurium Capital, as the lead investor, and Joy Capital. On December 1, 2021, we announced that we closed the Investment Agreement with the lead investor, pursuant to which we issued and sold a total of 295,384,615 Senior Preferred Shares to the lead investor. On January 7, 2022, we closed the Investment Agreement with Joy Capital, pursuant to which we issued and sold a total of 12,307,692 Senior Preferred Shares to an affiliate controlled by Joy Capital. As of the date of this annual report, 295,384,619 Senior Preferred Shares are outstanding.
The holders of our Senior Preferred Shares have certain rights that are preferential to the rights of the holders of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs, such as certain customary protective provisions and certain downside protection provisions intended to mitigate the impact of certain regulatory risks in connection with the previously disclosed Fabricated Transactions, including but not limited to the following.
● The approval of the holders of a majority of the then issued and outstanding Senior Preferred Shares shall be required for any adverse alteration to the rights and privileges of the holders of Senior Preferred Shares, any creation, authorization or issuance of any class or series of equity securities of the Company that are superior to or on a parity with the Senior Preferred Shares and certain other actions of the Company set forth in the Certificate of Designation.
● In the event of any liquidation, dissolution or winding-up of the Company, whether voluntary or involuntary, the holders of Senior Preferred Shares shall be entitled to receive distribution in cash out of the assets of the Company available for distribution in preference to the holders of other Shares.
● Each Senior Preferred Share can be convertible into a number of Class A Ordinary Share(s) of the Company (or an equivalent number of ADSs) at the ratio calculated using the then-applicable conversion price, which shall initially be the original issue price and is subject to adjustment from time to time.
See “Item 10. Additional Information—10.B. Memorandum and Articles of Association—Certificate of Designation.” The existence of the aforesaid rights, preferences and privileges of our Senior Preferred Shares and other rights, preferences and privileges of our Senior Preferred Shares as set forth in the Certificate of Designation, may reduce the value of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs, cause dilution to holders of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs, result in divergent interests between the holders of our Senior Preferred Shares and the holders of our Ordinary Shares and ADSs, make it harder for us to sell ADSs in offerings in the future and/or prevent or delay a change of control.
The trading price of the ADSs has been and may continue to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors.
Our ADSs were listed on NASDAQ Global Select Market (the “Nasdaq”), since our SEC-registered initial public offering in May 2019. We received a delisting notice from Nasdaq on May 15, 2020 and requested a hearing on May 22, 2020. We received another delisting notice from Nasdaq for failure to file our annual report on June 17, 2020. We notified Nasdaq of the Company’s decision to withdraw its request for the hearing on June 24, 2020. On July 1, 2020, we were delisted from Nasdaq when the staff of the Nasdaq Stock Market LLC filed a Form 25 Notification of Delisting. Our ADSs have been quoted on the OTC Pink Limited Information initially under the symbol “LKNCY” since the Nasdaq suspended the trading of our ADSs on June 29, 2020.
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The OTC market is a significantly more limited market than Nasdaq. The quotation of our ADSs on the OTC market may result in a less liquid market available for existing and potential stockholders to trade our ADSs, could depress the trading price of our ADSs and could have a long-term adverse impact on our ability to raise capital in the future.
For the period from January 1, 2020 to June 29, 2020 (suspension by the Nasdaq of the trading of our ADSs on the Nasdaq), the daily closing trading prices of our ADSs ranged from US$1.38 to US$50.02 per ADS. Since our ADSs have been quoted on the OTC market, the daily closing trading prices of our ADSs ranged from US$1.54 to US$43.03 per ADS up to the date of this annual report. The daily closing trading prices of our ADSs ranged from US$24.34 to US$43.03 per ADS in 2025. The trading price of the ADSs has been volatile and could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, including the performance and fluctuation of the market prices of other companies with business operations located mainly in China that have listed their securities in the United States. In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume for the ADSs may be highly volatile for factors specific to our own operations, including the following:
● variations in our revenues, earnings and cash flows;
● announcements of new investments, acquisitions, strategic partnerships or joint ventures by us or our competitors;
● announcements of new offerings and expansions by us or our competitors;
● changes in financial estimates by securities analysts;
● detrimental adverse publicity about us, our products and services or our industry;
● announcements of new regulations, rules or policies relevant for our business;
● additions or departures of key personnel;
● release of lock-up or other transfer restrictions on our outstanding equity securities or sales of additional equity securities;
● sales of additional ADSs in the public market or other equity-linked securities, or the perception of these events;
● convertible arbitrage strategy employed by certain investors in our Notes, including related short selling of our ADSs; and
● potential litigation or regulatory investigations.
Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the volume and price at which the ADSs will trade.
In addition, the stock market in general, and the market prices for internet-related companies and companies with operations in China in particular, have experienced volatility that often has been unrelated to the operating performance of such companies. The securities of some China-based companies that have listed their securities in the United States have experienced significant volatility since their initial public offerings in recent years, including, in some cases, substantial declines in the trading prices of their securities. The trading performances of these companies’ securities after their offerings may affect the attitudes of investors towards Chinese companies listed in the United States in general, which consequently may impact the trading performance of the ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance. In addition, any negative news or perceptions about inadequate corporate governance practices or fraudulent accounting, corporate structure or other matters of other Chinese companies may also negatively affect the attitudes of investors towards Chinese companies in general, including us, regardless of whether we have engaged in any inappropriate activities. In particular, the global financial crisis and the ensuing economic recessions in many countries have contributed and may continue to contribute to extreme volatility in the global stock markets. These broad market and industry fluctuations may adversely affect the trading price of the ADSs. Volatility or a lack of positive performance in the trading price of the ADSs may also adversely affect our ability to retain key employees, most of whom have been granted options or other equity incentives.
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In the past, shareholders of public companies have often brought securities class action suits against those companies following periods of instability in the market price of their securities. Our involvement in such class actions could divert a significant amount of our management’s attention and other resources from our business and operations and require us to incur significant expenses to defend the suit, which could harm our results of operations. Any such class action suit, whether or not successful, could harm our reputation and restrict our ability to raise capital in the future. In addition, if a claim is successfully made against us, we may be required to pay significant damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. Substantial future sales or perceived potential sales of ADSs in the public market or other equity-linked securities could cause the price of ADSs to decline. See “—Risks Relating to the Fabricated Transactions, Internal Investigation, Internal Control, Offshore Restructuring and Related Matters—We have been named as a defendant in a number of lawsuits filed by purchasers of our securities, including class action lawsuits that, absent settlement, could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows, and our reputation.”
Sales of substantial amounts of ADSs in the public market or other equity-linked securities, or the perception that these sales could occur, could adversely affect the trading price of ADSs. Certain holders of our Ordinary Shares and Senior Preferred Shares have the right to cause us to register under the Securities Act the sale of their shares. Registration of these shares under the Securities Act would result in ADSs representing these shares becoming freely tradable without restriction under the Securities Act immediately upon the effectiveness of the registration. Sales of these registered shares in the form of ADSs in the public market could cause the price of the ADSs to decline.
The voting rights of holders of the ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement, and you may not be able to exercise your right to direct the voting of your Class A Ordinary Shares underlying the ADSs.
Holders of the ADSs do not have the same rights as our registered shareholders. As a holder of the ADSs, you will not have any direct right to attend general meetings of our shareholders or to cast any votes at such meetings. You will only be able to exercise the voting rights which attach to the Class A Ordinary Shares underlying the ADSs indirectly by giving voting instructions to the depositary in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you may vote only by giving voting instructions to the depositary, as holder of the Class A Ordinary Shares underlying the ADSs. If we ask for your instructions, then upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try to vote the underlying Class A Ordinary Shares in accordance with those instructions. If we do not instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, you can still give instructions, and the depositary may vote in accordance with instructions you give, but it is not required to do so. You will not be able to directly exercise any right to vote with respect to the underlying Class A Ordinary Shares unless you withdraw the shares and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice of the meeting to enable you to withdraw the shares underlying the ADSs and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting to allow you to attend the general meeting and to vote directly with respect to any specific matter or resolution to be considered and voted upon at the general meeting. In addition, under our sixth amended and restated articles of association, for the purposes of determining those shareholders who are entitled to attend and vote at any general meeting, our directors may close our register of members and/or fix in advance a record date for such meeting, and such closure of our register of members or the setting of such a record date may prevent you from withdrawing the Class A Ordinary Shares underlying the ADSs and becoming the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date, so that you would not be able to attend the general meeting or to vote directly. Where any matter is to be put to a vote at a general meeting, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and to deliver our voting materials to you if we ask it to. We cannot assure you that you will receive the voting material in time to ensure you can direct the depositary to vote your shares. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the shares underlying the ADSs are voted, and you may have no legal remedy if the shares underlying the ADSs are not voted as you requested.
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Techniques employed by short sellers and/or the convertible bond arbitrage strategy employed by investors in our Notes may drive down the trading price of the ADSs.
Short selling is the practice of selling securities that the seller does not own but rather has borrowed from a third party with the intention of buying identical securities back at a later date to return to the lender. The short seller hopes to profit from a decline in the value of the securities between the sale of the borrowed securities and the purchase of the replacement shares, as the short seller expects to pay less in that purchase than it received in the sale. As it is in the short seller’s interest for the price of the security to decline, many short sellers publish, or arrange for the publication of, negative opinions regarding the relevant issuer and its business prospects in order to create negative market momentum and generate profits for themselves after selling a security short. These short attacks have, in the past, led to selling of shares in the market.
We have been and may in the future again become the subject of short selling, the target of harassing or other detrimental conduct by third parties. We have to expend a significant amount of resources to investigate such allegations. Such a situation could be costly and time-consuming, and could distract our management from growing our business. Even if such allegations are ultimately proven to be groundless, allegations against us could severely impact our business operations, and any investment in the ADSs could be greatly reduced or even rendered worthless.
If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the trading price for the ADSs and trading volume could decline.
The trading market for the ADSs will depend in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If research analysts do not establish and maintain adequate research coverage or if one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades the ADSs or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the trading price for the ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which, in turn, could cause the trading price or trading volume for the ADSs to decline.
You may experience dilution of your holdings due to the inability to participate in rights offerings.
We may, from time to time, distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire securities. Under the deposit agreement, the depositary will not distribute rights to holders of the ADSs unless the distribution and sale of rights and the securities to which these rights relate are either exempt from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of the ADSs, or are registered under the provisions of the Securities Act. The depositary may, but is not required to, attempt to sell these undistributed rights to third parties, and may allow the rights to lapse. We may be unable to establish an exemption from registration under the Securities Act, and we are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to these rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to have a registration statement declared effective. Accordingly, holders of the ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution of their holdings as a result.
Anti-takeover provisions contained in our memorandum and articles of association and our shareholder rights plan could have a material adverse effect on the rights of holders of our Ordinary Shares and the ADSs.
Our memorandum and articles of association contain provisions which limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions. For example, our Board has the authority subject to any resolution of the shareholders to the contrary, to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to fix their designations, powers, preferences, privileges, and relative participating, optional or special rights and the qualifications, limitations or restrictions, including dividend rights, conversion rights, voting rights, terms of redemption and liquidation preferences, any or all of which may be greater than the rights associated with our Ordinary Shares. Using such authority, we issued and sold a total of 295,384,615 Senior Preferred Shares to an affiliate of Centurium Capital and a total of 12,307,692 Senior Preferred Shares to an affiliate controlled by Joy Capital, each of which pursuant to an investment agreement that we entered into with these two investors in April 2021. For more details, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—4.A. History and Development of the Company.” Preferred shares could be issued quickly with terms calculated to delay or prevent a change in control of our company or make removal of management more difficult. If our Board decides to issue preferred shares, the trading price of the ADSs may fall and the voting and other rights of the holders of our Ordinary Shares and the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.
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In addition, on October 14, 2021, we adopted a shareholder rights plan (the “Rights Plan”), which was amended on October 14, 2024 to extend its expiration date. Pursuant to the Rights Plan, if a person or group acquires 10% or more of our shares or voting power, except as specifically permitted under the Rights Plan, our shareholders other than such acquiring person or group will have the right to purchase additional securities from us at potentially a substantial discount to those securities’ fair market value, thus causing substantial dilution to the ownership of such acquiring person or group.
The anti-takeover provisions contained in our memorandum and articles of association and the existence of the Rights Plan may discourage transactions that otherwise could involve payment of a premium over prevailing market prices for the ADSs and could have the effect of depriving our shareholders and ADS holders of an opportunity to realize such premium by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or other similar transaction.
We incur significant costs as a result of being a public company.
As a public company, we incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC, impose various requirements on the corporate governance practices of public companies. We expect to incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with the requirements of Section 404 and the other rules and regulations of the SEC.
We expect the rules and regulations applicable to public companies to increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some corporate activities more time-consuming and costly. For example, as a public company, we need to adopt policies regarding internal control and disclosure control and procedures. We also expect that operating as a public company makes it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. In addition, we incur additional costs associated with our public company reporting requirements. It is also more difficult for us to find qualified persons to serve on our Board or as executive officers.
We are a foreign private issuer within the meaning of the rules under the Exchange Act, and as such we are exempt from certain provisions applicable to U.S. domestic public companies.
Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities rules and regulations in the United States that are applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, including:
● the rules under the Exchange Act requiring the filing with the SEC of quarterly reports on Form 10-Q or current reports on Form 8-K;
● the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the solicitation of proxies, consents or authorizations in respect of a security registered under the Exchange Act;
● the sections of the Exchange Act requiring insiders to file public reports of their stock ownership and trading activities and liability for insiders who profit from trades made in a short period of time; and
● the selective disclosure rules by issuers of material nonpublic information under Regulation FD.
We are required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. Press releases relating to financial results and material events will also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC will be less extensive and less timely compared to that required to be filed with the SEC by U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information that would be made available to you were you investing in a U.S. domestic issuer.
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Our status as a passive foreign investment company (a “PFIC”) for U.S. federal income tax purposes for certain prior taxable years is subject to uncertainty, and there can be no assurances that we will not be a PFIC for the current or any future taxable year, which would result in adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. investors in our ADSs or Class A Ordinary Shares.
In general, a non-U.S. corporation is a PFIC for any taxable year in which (i) 75% or more of its gross income consists of passive income or (ii) 50% or more of the average value of its assets (generally determined on a quarterly basis) consists of assets that produce, or are held for the production of, passive income. For purposes of the above calculations, a non-U.S. corporation that directly or indirectly owns at least 25% by value of the shares of another corporation is treated as if it held its proportionate share of the assets of the other corporation and received directly its proportionate share of the income of the other corporation. Passive income generally includes dividends, interest, rents, royalties and investment gains. Cash is generally a passive asset for these purposes. Goodwill and other intangible assets are active assets under the PFIC rules to the extent attributable to activities that produce active income.
The determination of our PFIC status is subject to certain uncertainties and is made by applying principles and methodologies that are in some circumstances unclear.
Based on the composition of our income and assets and the estimated value of our assets (including goodwill and other intangible assets), we believe that we were not a PFIC for our 2025 taxable year. However, there can be no assurances that we will not be a PFIC for the current or any future taxable year because our PFIC status is an annual determination that can be made only after the end of the relevant taxable year and will depend on the composition of our income and assets and the value of our assets from time to time (including the value of our goodwill and other intangible assets, which may be determined, in part, by reference to our market capitalization, which has been, and may continue to be, volatile). Therefore, fluctuations in the market price of our ADSs may cause us to be or become a PFIC for the current or any future taxable year.
Moreover, it is not entirely clear how the contractual arrangements between us and our Former VIE are treated for purposes of the PFIC rules, which could affect our PFIC status for taxable years during which our VIE structure was in place. Furthermore, there are uncertainties as to how the PFIC rules apply with respect to our partnership model. In addition, our PFIC status for any taxable year may depend, in part, on the magnitude of, and how we operate, our global franchise model and, if we earn income from royalties under this model, the extent to which such royalties will be treated as active under the PFIC rules. For these reasons, our PFIC status for any taxable year is uncertain.
As discussed in certain of our prior filings on Form 20-F, there may be some uncertainty regrading our PFIC status for certain of our prior taxable years. If we are or were a PFIC for any taxable year during which a U.S. investor owns our ADSs or Class A Ordinary Shares (even if we cease to be a PFIC in a later taxable year), certain adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences and additional reporting obligations will apply to such U.S. investor. See “Item 10. Additional Information—10.E. Taxation—U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations—Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.”
U.S. Holders should consult their tax advisers regarding our PFIC status for any taxable year.
ADS holders may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to claims arising under the deposit agreement, which could result in less favorable outcomes to the plaintiff(s) in any such action.
The deposit agreement governing the ADSs representing our Class A Ordinary Shares provides that, to the fullest extent permitted by law, ADS holders waive the right to a jury trial of any claim they may have against us or the depositary arising out of or relating to our shares, the ADSs or the deposit agreement, including any claim under the U.S. federal securities laws.
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If we or the depositary opposed a jury trial demand based on the waiver, the court would determine whether the waiver was enforceable based on the facts and circumstances of that case in accordance with the applicable state and federal law. To our knowledge, the enforceability of a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver in connection with claims arising under the federal securities laws has not been finally adjudicated by the United States Supreme Court. However, we believe that a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision is generally enforceable, including under the laws of the State of New York, which govern the deposit agreement, by a federal or state court in the City of New York, which has non-exclusive jurisdiction over matters arising under the deposit agreement. In determining whether to enforce a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision, courts will generally consider whether a party knowingly, intelligently and voluntarily waived the right to a jury trial. We believe that this is the case with respect to the deposit agreement and the ADSs. It is advisable that you consult legal counsel regarding the jury waiver provision before entering into the deposit agreement.
If you or any other holders or beneficial owners of ADSs bring a claim against us or the depositary in connection with matters arising under the deposit agreement or the ADSs, including claims under federal securities laws, you or such other holder or beneficial owner may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to such claims, which may have the effect of limiting and discouraging lawsuits against us and/or the depositary. If a lawsuit is brought against us and/or the depositary under the deposit agreement, it may be heard only by a judge or justice of the applicable trial court, which would be conducted according to different civil procedures and may result in different outcomes than a trial by jury would have had, including results that could be less favorable to the plaintiff(s) in any such action.
Nevertheless, if this jury trial waiver provision is not permitted by applicable law, an action could proceed under the terms of the deposit agreement with a jury trial. No condition, stipulation or provision of the deposit agreement or ADSs serves as a waiver by any holder or beneficial owner of ADSs or by us or the depositary of compliance with any substantive provision of the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder.