UP Fintech is not a Chinese operating company but a Cayman Islands holding company with no material operations of its own, whose operations are conducted by its subsidiaries and through contractual arrangements with VIEs based in China. This structure involves unique risks to investors. We conduct our operations primarily through our Singapore subsidiaries, New Zealand subsidiaries, U.S. subsidiaries, Hong Kong subsidiaries and the VIEs and their respective subsidiaries in China. The VIE structure is used to replicate foreign investment in Chinese-based companies where Chinese law prohibits direct foreign investment in the operating companies, and contractual arrangements with the VIEs may not be as effective as ownership in providing operational control. Chinese regulatory authorities could disallow this structure, which would likely result in a material change in our operations and/or value of our American Depositary Shares, or “ADSs,” including that it could cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or become worthless. There is no assurance that the PRC government will not regulate transfer of cash to or from the holding company, the subsidiaries, the VIEs and investors. For more information about our operations, refer to “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Summary Financial Information Regarding the Company, Its Subsidiaries, and Consolidated VIEs.” Additionally, VIE agreements have not been tested in a court of law. For more information regarding these and other risks, refer to “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure.” A diagram of our corporate structure, as of the date of this annual report, reflecting our significant subsidiaries, the consolidated VIEs, and subsidiaries of the VIEs, is set forth below: 11 Table of Contents 12 Table of Contents On December 2, 2021, the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC, adopted final rules, including amendments to Form 20-F, to implement the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCAA, which was signed into law on December 18, 2020 and further amended by the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 signed into law on December 29, 2022. The HFCAA requires the SEC to prohibit the securities of any “covered issuer” from being traded on any of the U.S. securities exchanges, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, or traded “over-the-counter” if the auditor of the covered issuer’s financial statements is not subject to PCAOB inspection for three consecutive years. The SEC rules establish procedures the SEC will follow in determining whether a registrant is a “Commission-Identified Issuer” (as defined in the final rule). On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report on its determinations that it is unable to inspect or investigate PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and in Hong Kong because of positions taken by PRC authorities in those jurisdictions. Our independent registered public accounting firm was subject to the determinations announced by the PCAOB on December 16, 2021. On May 26, 2022, the SEC added the Company to its conclusive list of Commission-Identified Issuers. The SEC’s rules require each Commission-Identified Issuer to submit documentation to the SEC annually on or before its annual report due date establishing that it is not owned or controlled by a governmental entity in that foreign jurisdiction. The SEC will impose an initial trading prohibition on an issuer as soon as practicable after it has been conclusively identified as a Commission-Identified Issuer for two consecutive years. On August 26, 2022, the PCAOB announced that it signed a Statement of Protocol with the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC, and the Ministry of Finance, which it described as the first step toward completely opening access for the PCAOB to inspect and investigate registered public accounting firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB vacated its 2021 determination that the positions taken by authorities in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong prevented it completely from inspecting and investigating registered public accounting firms headquartered in those jurisdictions. As a result, the SEC will not provisionally or conclusively identify an issuer as a Commission-Identified Issuer if it files an annual report with an audit report issued by a registered public accounting firm headquartered in mainland China or Hong Kong on or after December 15, 2022, until such time as the PCAOB issues a new determination. In light of the PCAOB’s decision to vacate its 2021 determination and until such time as the PCAOB issues any new adverse determination, the SEC has stated that there are no issuers at risk of having their securities subject to a trading prohibition under the HFCAA. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, amended the HFCAA in two significant ways: (i) reducing the consecutive non-inspection years required to trigger HFCAA prohibitions from three to two, and (ii) allowing any foreign jurisdiction to be the basis for the PCAOB’s incomplete access to inspect or investigate a company’s auditor. Initially, the HFCAA applied only if the PCAOB’s inability to inspect or investigate resulted from a stance taken by an authority in the foreign jurisdiction where the relevant public accounting firm operated. Following the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, the HFCAA now also applies if the PCAOB’s inability to inspect or investigate the relevant accounting firm arises from a stance taken by an authority in any foreign jurisdiction, irrespective of the location of the accounting firm. However, whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our control. If the PCAOB again becomes unable to conduct a full inspection of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit documentation related to their audit reports, then our common stock will again be subject to potential delisting from The Nasdaq Stock Market. For more information about these risks, see the risk factor below under the heading “We may be subject to consequences pursuant to the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act and related regulations, including the potential for our ADSs to be prohibited from trading on U.S. securities exchanges, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, and in the U.S. over-the-counter market, which will limit the liquidity of our ADSs and our access to U.S. capital markets.” We are subject to multiple risks arising from our corporate structure, including our status as a holding company incorporated in the Cayman Islands that conducts a portion of our business through China-based VIEs with which we have only contractual relationships and in which we do not own an equity interest, and our operations in China, including potential actions or decisions by PRC or U.S. regulatory authorities restricting or affecting our business activities in the PRC or our access to U.S. capital markets. Certain of these risks, as well as other information relating to our corporate structure and operations in China, are highlighted in this section. This information should be considered in conjunction with the other risks described below under “Risk Factors,” and the information set forth under the heading “Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure” is incorporated by reference in “Item 3. Key Information – D. Risk Factors.” 13 Table of Contents Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure Shareholders may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through the U.S. courts may be limited, because we are registered under Cayman Islands law. We are an exempted company limited by shares incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum of association and articles of association, the Companies Act of the Cayman Islands and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against the directors, actions by minority shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedents in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedents in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, Cayman Islands companies may not have the standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States. Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like ours have no general rights under the Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have the discretion under our fourth amended and restated articles of association to determine such times and such days that our register and branch register of members, as the case may be, shall be open to inspection by our shareholders or other persons. This may make it more difficult for shareholders to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands differ significantly from requirements for companies incorporated in other jurisdictions such as the United States. We rely on home country practice with respect to certain corporate governance matters. Our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would have under rules and regulations applicable to U.S. domestic issuers. As a result of all of the above, public shareholders may have more difficulties in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by the management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would have as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States. If the agreements that establish the structure for operating some of our activities in China do not comply with PRC regulations, if we fail to obtain all required permissions and approvals required by Chinese regulatory authorities, or if these regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations. Our WFOEs have entered into a series of contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders, respectively, which enable us to (i) exercise effective control over the VIEs, and (ii) receive substantially all of the economic benefits of the VIEs. As a result of these contractual arrangements, we have control over and are the primary beneficiary of the VIEs and hence consolidate their financial results into our consolidated financial statements under U.S. GAAP. See Item 4 “Information on the Company” for further details. To our knowledge, we believe that (i) the ownership structures of the VIEs in China and our WFOEs, comply with all existing PRC laws and regulations; (ii) the contractual arrangements between our WFOEs, the VIEs and their respective shareholders governed by PRC law are valid, binding and enforceable, and in compliance with PRC laws or regulations currently in effect; and (iii) except as disclosed under the risk factor headed “We may be adversely affected by the complexity, uncertainties and changes in the PRC regulations of Internet-related businesses and companies, and any lack of requisite licenses, permits or approvals applicable to our business may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations”, our PRC subsidiaries and the VIEs have received all permissions or approvals that we believe are required and necessary to conduct our business operations within the PRC in all material aspects. However, there are uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of the existing and future PRC laws, regulations and rules. Accordingly, the PRC regulatory authorities may take a view that 14 Table of Contents is not consistent with the opinion of the Company and our PRC legal counsel. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws or regulations relating to variable interest entity structures will be adopted or if adopted, what they would provide. If we or any of the VIEs are found to be in violation of any existing or future PRC laws or regulations, fail to obtain or maintain any of the required permits or approvals, or inadvertently conclude that such permissions or approvals are not required, or if applicable laws, regulations, interpretations or administrative policy change and we are required to obtain such permissions or approvals in the future but are unable or fail to do so, the relevant PRC regulatory authorities would have broad discretion to take action in dealing with such violations or failures, including, without limitation: •revoking the business licenses and/or any permits held by such entities; •discontinuing or placing restrictions or onerous conditions on our activities through any transactions between our WFOEs and the VIEs; •imposing fines, confiscating the income from our WFOEs or the VIEs, or imposing other requirements with which we or the VIEs may not be able to comply; •requiring us to restructure our ownership structure or activities, including terminating the contractual arrangements with the VIEs and deregistering the equity pledges of the VIEs, which in turn would affect our ability to consolidate, derive economic benefits from, or exert effective control over the VIEs; or •restricting or prohibiting our use of the proceeds of our initial public offering and concurrent private placement to finance our business and activities in China. The imposition of any of these penalties would result in a material and adverse effect on our ability to conduct our business. In addition, it is unclear what impact the PRC government actions would have on us and on our ability to consolidate the financial results of the VIEs in our consolidated financial statements, if the PRC government authorities were to find our legal structure and contractual arrangements to be in violation of PRC laws and regulations. If the imposition of any of these government actions causes us to lose our right to direct the activities of the VIEs and we are not able to restructure our ownership structure and operations in a satisfactory manner, or any other significant penalties imposed on us in this event, there would have a material adverse effect on our activities in China, and our ability to conduct our business may be negatively affected. This could have a material adverse effect on the market price of our ADSs. Uncertainties exist with respect to the interpretation and implementation of the Foreign Investment Law of the PRC and how it may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations. On March 15, 2019, the National People’s Congress adopted the Foreign Investment Law of the PRC, or the FIL, which became effective on January 1, 2020 and replaced the Wholly Foreign-Invested Enterprise Law of the PRC, the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Joint Venture Enterprise Law of the PRC and the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Enterprise Law of the PRC, together with their implementation rules and ancillary regulations. On December 26, 2019, the State Council published the Implementation Rules of the Foreign Investment Law, or the FIL Implementation Rules, which took effect on January 1, 2020. The FIL embodies an expected PRC regulatory trend to rationalize its foreign investment regulatory regime in line with prevailing international practice and the legislative efforts to unify the corporate legal requirements for both foreign and domestic investments. However, since it is relatively new, uncertainties still exist in relation to its interpretation and implementation. For example, the FIL removes all references to the terms of “de facto control” or “contractual control” as defined in the draft published in 2015 by the Ministry of Commerce, or the MOFCOM, and adds a catch-all clause to the definition of “foreign investment” so that foreign investment, by its definition, includes “investments made by foreign investors in China through other means defined by other laws or administrative regulations or provisions promulgated by the State Council” without further elaboration on the meaning of “other means.” The FIL Implementation Rules also remain silent on contractual arrangements. It leaves leeway for the future legislations promulgated by the State Council to provide for contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment. 15 Table of Contents We currently use contractual arrangements to operate certain businesses, including the consolidated VIEs, in which foreign investors are prohibited or restricted from investing. It is uncertain whether our corporate structure, including our existing VIE structures, will be seen as violating the foreign investment rules. In addition, the FIL grants national treatment to foreign invested entities, except for those foreign invested entities that operate in industries deemed to be either “restricted” or “prohibited” in the “negative list”. The current Special Administrative Measures for Market Access of Foreign Investment (Negative List) (2024 Edition) was issued by the National Development and Reform Commission, or the NDRC, and the MOFCOM on September 8, 2024 and became effective on November 1, 2024. Furthermore, on December 19, 2020, the NDRC and the MOFCOM jointly issued the Measures for Security Review of Foreign Investment, effective on January 18, 2021, which provides detailed guidance regarding security review of foreign investment that has a potential impact on national security. However, there remain a number of unclear issues under the Measures, including but not limited to its view towards contractual arrangements, including VIE arrangements. Changes in PRC laws and regulations could materially adversely affect the contractual arrangements. If future legislations prescribed by the State Council mandate further actions to be taken by companies with respect to existing contractual arrangement, we may face uncertainties as to whether we can complete such actions in a timely manner, or at all. Failure to take timely and appropriate measures to comply with any of these or similar regulatory compliance requirements could materially and adversely affect our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations. We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders for a large portion of our business operations, which may not be as effective as equity ownership in providing operational control, and which we may not be able to enforce in a court of law. We are a holding company with no material operations of our own. We conduct our operations primarily through our Singapore subsidiaries, New Zealand subsidiaries, U.S. subsidiaries, Hong Kong subsidiaries and the VIEs and their respective subsidiaries in China. We have relied and expect to continue to rely on contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders to conduct certain of our key supporting functions. Additionally, the VIEs were responsible for generating approximately 0.6% of our revenues for the year ended December 31, 2025. The VIEs are consolidated for accounting purposes, but we do not have and may never have an equity interest in the VIEs. These contractual arrangements are used to provide investors with exposure to foreign investment in China-based companies where Chinese law prohibits direct foreign investment in the operating companies and may not be as effective as equity ownership in providing us with control over the VIEs. For example, the VIEs and their respective shareholders could breach their contractual arrangements with us by, among other things, failing to conduct their operations in an acceptable manner or taking other actions that are detrimental to our interests. Our contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their respective shareholders are described in detail below under the heading “Item 3. Key Information — Contractual Arrangements with the VIEs and Their Respective Shareholders.” If we had equity ownership of the VIEs, we would be able to exercise our rights as a shareholder to effect changes in the board of directors of the VIEs, which in turn could implement changes, subject to any applicable fiduciary obligations, at the management and operational level. However, under the current contractual arrangements, we rely on the performance by the VIEs and their respective shareholders of their obligations under the contracts to exercise control over the VIEs. The shareholders of the consolidated VIEs may not act in the best interests of our company or may not perform their obligations under these contracts. Such risks exist throughout the period in which we intend to operate certain portions of our business through the contractual arrangements with the VIEs. If any disputes relating to these contracts remain unresolved, we will have to enforce our rights under these contracts through the operations of PRC law and arbitration, litigation and other legal proceedings and therefore will be subject to uncertainties in the PRC legal system. See “Item 3. Key Information - Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure - Any failure by the VIEs or their shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on our business.” Therefore, our contractual arrangements with the VIEs may not be as effective in ensuring our control over the relevant portion of our business operations as equity ownership would be. Our PRC legal counsel has advised us that there are uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules, including those governing VIE arrangements. Additionally, the VIEs contractual arrangements have not been tested in a Chinese court of law. Accordingly, the PRC regulatory authorities may take a view that is contrary to the opinion of our PRC legal counsel. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws 16 Table of Contents or regulations relating to variable interest entity structures will be adopted or if adopted, what they would provide. If we or any of the VIEs are found to be in violation of any existing or future PRC laws or regulations, or fail to obtain or maintain any of the required permits or approvals, the relevant PRC regulatory authorities would have broad discretion to take action in dealing with such violations or failures. Additionally, Chinese regulatory authorities could disallow this structure, which would likely result in a material change in our operations and/or a material change in the value of our securities, including that it could cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or become worthless. Any failure by the VIEs or their shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on our business. We refer to the shareholders of each VIE as its nominee shareholders because although they remain the holders of equity interests on record in each of the VIEs, pursuant to the terms of the relevant power of attorney, each such shareholder has irrevocably authorized the relevant WFOE to exercise his, her or its rights as a shareholder of the relevant VIE. Additionally, our WFOEs have the sole discretion to receive from the relevant VIE an annual service fee and will make discretionary determinations on whether to collect services fees and on the amount of fees to be collected in future years. To the extent that our WFOEs do not choose to charge service fees to the VIEs, we will not have any contractual rights to collect funds from the VIEs that would be legally enforceable upon liquidation or sale of the VIEs. Under such circumstances, our investors would not derive any benefit from the operation of, or our contractual arrangements with, the VIEs. Furthermore, if the VIEs or their shareholders fail to perform their respective obligations under the contractual arrangements, we may have to incur substantial costs and expend additional resources to enforce such arrangements. We may also have to rely on legal remedies under the PRC law, including seeking specific performance or injunctive relief, and claiming damages, which we cannot assure will be effective under the PRC law. For example, if the shareholders of the VIEs refuse to transfer their equity interests in the VIEs to us or our designee if we exercise the purchase option pursuant to these contractual arrangements, or if they otherwise act in bad faith towards us, then we may have to take legal actions to compel them to perform their contractual obligations. All of the agreements under our contractual arrangements are governed by the PRC law and provide for the resolution of disputes through arbitration in China. Accordingly, these contracts would be interpreted in accordance with the PRC law and any disputes would be resolved in accordance with PRC legal procedures. There are uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules regarding the status of the rights of our Cayman Islands holding company with respect to its contractual arrangements with the VIEs and their shareholders. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws or regulations relating to variable interest entity structures will be adopted or if adopted, what they would provide. Additionally, the legal system in the PRC is developing and rapidly evolving. As a result, uncertainties in the PRC legal system could limit our ability to enforce these contractual arrangements. See “Item 3. Key Information - Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure - The legal system of the PRC is developing and rapidly evolving, and there are inherent uncertainties that may affect the protection afforded to us.” Meanwhile, there are very few precedents and little formal guidance as to how contractual arrangements in the context of a VIE should be interpreted or enforced under the PRC law. There remain significant uncertainties regarding the ultimate outcome of such arbitration. In addition, under the PRC law, rulings by arbitrators are final, parties cannot appeal the arbitration results in courts, and if the losing parties fail to carry out the arbitration awards within a prescribed time limit, the prevailing parties may only enforce the arbitration awards in PRC courts through arbitration award recognition and enforcement proceedings, which would require additional expenses and delay. In the event we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements, or if we suffer significant delays or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, we may not be able to exert effective control over the VIEs, and our ability to conduct our business may be negatively affected. The shareholders of the VIEs may have potential conflicts of interest with us, which may materially and adversely affect our business. The shareholders of the VIEs may have potential conflicts of interest with us. These shareholders may breach, or cause the VIEs to breach, or refuse to renew, the existing contractual arrangements we have with them and the VIEs, which would have a material and adverse effect on our ability to effectively control the VIEs and receive economic benefits from them. For example, the shareholders may be able to cause our agreements with the VIEs to be performed in a manner adverse to us by, among other things, failing to remit payments due under the contractual arrangements to us 17 Table of Contents in a timely manner. We cannot assure you that when conflicts of interest arise any or all of these shareholders will act in the best interests of our company or such conflicts will be resolved in our favor. Currently, we do not have any arrangements to address potential conflicts of interest between these shareholders and our company, except that we could exercise our purchase option under the Exclusive Option Agreements with these shareholders to request them to transfer all of their equity interests in the VIEs to a PRC entity or individual designated by us, to the extent permitted by the PRC law. If we cannot resolve any conflict of interest or dispute between us and these shareholders, we would have to rely on legal proceedings, which could result in disruption of our business and subject us to uncertainties as to the outcome of any such legal proceedings. Contractual arrangements in relation to the VIEs may be subject to scrutiny by the PRC tax authorities and they may determine that we or our PRC VIEs owe additional taxes, which could negatively affect our financial condition and the value of your investment. Under applicable PRC laws and regulations, arrangements and transactions among related parties may be subject to audit or challenge by the PRC tax authorities. We could face material and adverse tax consequences if the PRC tax authorities determine that the VIE contractual arrangements were not entered into on an arm’s length basis in such a way as to result in an impermissible reduction in taxes under applicable PRC laws, rules and regulations, and adjust the income of the VIEs in the form of a transfer pricing adjustment. A transfer pricing adjustment could, among other things, result in a reduction of expense deductions recorded by the VIEs for PRC tax purposes, which could in turn increase their liabilities without reducing our WFOEs’ tax expenses. In addition, the PRC tax authorities may impose late payment fees and other penalties on the VIEs for the adjusted but unpaid taxes according to the applicable regulations. Our financial position could be materially and adversely affected if the VIEs’ tax liabilities increase or if it is required to pay late payment fees and other penalties. We may lose the ability to use and enjoy assets held by the VIEs that are material to the operation of certain portions of our business if the VIEs go bankrupt or become subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding. As part of our contractual arrangements with the VIEs, the VIEs and their subsidiaries hold certain assets that are material to the operation of certain portion of our business, including intellectual properties. If the VIEs go bankrupt and all or part of their assets become subject to liens or rights of third-party creditors, we may be unable to continue some or all of our business activities, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Under the contractual arrangements, the VIEs may not, in any manner, sell, transfer, mortgage or dispose of their assets or legal or beneficial interests in the business without our prior consent. If the VIEs undergo a voluntary or involuntary liquidation proceeding, independent third-party creditors may claim rights to some or all of these assets, thereby hindering our ability to operate our business, which could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations. The PRC government may regulate transfer of cash to or from the holding company, the subsidiaries, the VIEs and investors. A majority of our revenues were generated from our wholly owned subsidiaries in New Zealand, Singapore and the United States for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025. Most of the consolidated VIEs and their subsidiaries operate business in the PRC and their main functions are to support our licensed/registered entities in New Zealand, Singapore, and the United States, etc. (“Licensed Entities”). Certain of the costs generated by VIEs and their subsidiaries are covered by these Licensed Entities through inter-company transactions, and we expect that the Licensed Entities will cover a substantial majority of such costs in the future. In general, the holding company transfers funds from financing (including funds from its IPO, follow-on equity offerings, and offerings of convertible bonds, as applicable) to Licensed Entities in the form of capital injections or loans to support their business expansion. These Licensed Entities pay the consolidated VIEs and their subsidiaries periodically for the services rendered through inter-company transactions, pursuant to the terms of the contractual arrangements between them. To date, we have not experienced difficulty in transferring cash to or from the holding company, the subsidiaries, the VIEs, and investors. However, there is no assurance that the PRC government will not further regulate transfer of cash in the future. 18 Table of Contents If we fail to protect customer data and privacy, our reputation, financial condition and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected. We are dependent on information technology networks and systems to securely process, transmit and store electronic information and to communicate among our locations and with our customers and partners. Due to the volume and sensitivity of the personal information and customer data we manage and the nature of our brokerage services and ESOP management services, the security features of our platform and information systems are critical. We have adopted security policies and measures, including encryption technology, to protect our proprietary data and customer’s privacy. All customer and transaction data are saved in our own database and operating systems. Only database administrators with the proper authorization have access to the database. In addition, all employees should sign non-disclosure agreements when they join and leave our company. However, we cannot guarantee our employees will not breach the non-disclosure agreements in the future. Further, as the breadth and complexity of the infrastructure of our platform continues to grow, the potential risk of system breakdown or function failure increases and it is the same for the potential risk of security breaches and cyber-attacks such as viruses, malware or phishing attempts by cyber criminals or other wrongdoers seeking to steal our customer’s data for financial gain or to harm our business operations or reputation. Further, if any person, including any of our employees, negligently disregards or intentionally breaches our established controls with respect to customer data, or otherwise mismanages or misappropriates that data, we could be subject to significant monetary damages, regulatory enforcement actions, fines or even criminal prosecution in one or more jurisdictions. Unauthorized disclosure of sensitive or confidential customer data, whether through system failure, employee negligence, fraud or misappropriation, could damage our reputation and cause us to lose customers. Cyber-attacks could also adversely affect our operating results, consume internal resources, and result in litigation or potential liabilities for us and otherwise harm our business. Historically, we received complaints from our customers regarding the leakage of their personal information. Although we have conducted investigation on such leakage, we cannot guarantee that there will not be other similar incidents and complaints. Further, our security management programs are reviewed annually, and therefore, we cannot ensure that such programs will be updated promptly. In addition, by virtue of third party channels, our corporate customers utilize our technology to serve their own customers. Consequently, any leak or abuse of customer data by our third party channels may be perceived by the customers as a result of our failure to protect the customer data and privacy. Any failure or perceived failure by us to prevent information security breaches or to comply with privacy policies or privacy-related legal obligations, or any compromise of security that results in the unauthorized release or transfer of personally identifiable information or other customer data, could cause our customers to lose trust in us and could expose us to legal claims. A growing number of legislative and regulatory bodies have adopted consumer notification requirements in the event of unauthorized access to or acquisition of certain types of personal data. Such breach notification laws continue to evolve and may be inconsistent from one jurisdiction to another, which might become a particular concern as we accelerate our international expansion. For information regarding risks relating to privacy and data security laws to which we are subject in China, see “– We may be subject to regulatory compliance costs and enforcement activity relating to Chinese privacy and data security laws.” In addition, laws and regulations in certain jurisdictions impose specific regulatory requirements on cross border transmission of important personal data. We are subject to domestic and international laws relating to the collection, use, retention, security and transfer of personally identifiable information among us and our international subsidiaries. Non-compliance could result in significant penalties or legal liability. Foreign data protection, privacy, and other laws and regulations can impose different obligations or be more restrictive that those in Chinese mainland. Regulatory authorities around the world are considering a number of legislative and regulatory proposals concerning data protection. Also, the interpretation and application of consumer and data protection laws in the U.S., Europe and elsewhere are often uncertain. It is possible that these laws may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our data practices. These legislative and regulatory proposals, if adopted, and such interpretations could, in addition to the possibility of fines, result in an order requiring that we change our data practices, which could have an adverse effect on our business and results of operations. We cannot assure that the measures we currently adopt to assess the personal data security could satisfy the requirements of the relevant governmental authorities or any future measures when published. Further, to comply with 19 Table of Contents those obligations will incur substantial costs and could increase negative publicity surrounding any incident that compromises user data. Although we have made substantial efforts to ensure our compliance with the applicable privacy regulations in various jurisdictions, we may not be capable of adjusting our internal policies in a timely manner and any failure to comply with applicable regulations could also result in regulatory enforcement actions against us. We may be subject to regulatory compliance costs and enforcement activity relating to Chinese privacy and data security laws. In China, the government is still ramping up regulations with regard to personal information protection. On October 1, 2020, the Information Security Technology - Personal Information Security Specification (GB/T 35273-2020) , or the 2020 Specification took effect. Although the 2020 Specification is a recommended guideline, and it is not enforceable by law, the authority will use this standard to evaluate our compliance with China’s legal guidelines and regulations regarding personal information protection. Besides, Personal Information Protection Law promulgated by SCNPC on August 20, 2021 became the most relevant law in China regarding personal information protection and came into effect on November 1, 2021. The Personal Information Protection Law provides serve punishment for those who violates regulations when processing personal information. For details of the relevant PRC Laws, please refer to the section “Regulations on Privacy Protection” below. In addition, the Cyber Security Law of the PRC, which was promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC and became effective on June 1, 2017, requires operators of key information infrastructures, which include, among others, public communications and information service and financial industry and other important industries and fields, shall store personal information and important data gathered and produced during operations in China within the territory of China. Where such information and data need to be transmitted overseas based on commercial demand, a security assessment shall be conducted in accordance with the measures formulated by the national cyberspace administration authority in concert with the relevant departments under the State Council. On December 28, 2021, the CAC and other twelve PRC regulatory authorities jointly revised and promulgated the Measures for Cybersecurity Review, or the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which came into effect on February 15, 2022. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, besides the procurement of network products and services by critical information infrastructure operators, any data processing activities by network platform operators that affects or may affect national security shall be subject to the cybersecurity review as well. In accordance with the Cybersecurity Review Measures, operators mastering personal information of more than one million users must apply to the Cybersecurity Review Office for cybersecurity review when they seek for listing in a foreign country. In addition, the CAC published the Decision on Amending the Cyber Security Law (Draft for Comments), or the Decision on the Cyber Security Law on September 14, 2022, pursuant to which the legal liabilities of violating the Cyber Security Law are strengthened. However, as of the date of this annual report, the period for public comment on the draft of the Cyber Security Law has ended while no official rules have been issued, and the Cybersecurity Review Measures and the Decision on the Cyber Security Law remain unclear on whether the relevant requirements will be applicable to companies that have been listed in the United States. Although all of the data centers used for our brokerage service are located overseas, we have several servers located in China to provide user community support and market information. We might need to transmit certain personal data between different locations, and since such data are used for financial services, we might be subject to security assessment requirements as set forth in the Cyber Security Law of the PRC. Furthermore, the Regulations on Network Data Security was promulgated by the State Council on September 24, 2024 and became effective on January 1, 2025, according to which, a network data handler may transmit personal information abroad if it meets any of the following conditions: (1) having passed the security assessment for data cross-border transmission organized by the state cyberspace administration; (2) having been certified by a specialized agency in respect of the protection of personal information in accordance with the provisions of the state cyberspace administration; (3) meeting the provisions on standard contract for cross-border transmission of personal information as developed by the state cyberspace administration; (4) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to conclude or perform a contract to which it is a party; (5) necessary to provide personal information of employees abroad under the employment rules and regulations formulated in accordance with the law and collective contracts concluded in accordance with the law; (6) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to perform statutory duties or obligations; (7) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to protect the life, health and property security of natural persons in an emergency; and (8) other conditions provided for in laws, administrative 20 Table of Contents regulations or by the state cyberspace administration. In addition, network data processors engaging in network data processing activities that affect or may affect national security shall undergo national security review. We cannot assure that the measures we currently adopt to assess the personal data security could satisfy the requirements of the relevant governmental authorities in China or any future measures when published. Further, to comply with those obligations will incur substantial costs and could increase negative publicity surrounding any incident that compromises user data. Although we have made substantial efforts to ensure our compliance with the applicable privacy regulations in various jurisdictions, we may not be capable of adjusting our internal policies in a timely manner and any failure to comply with applicable regulations could also result in regulatory enforcement actions against us. For more information regarding risks relating to privacy and data security regulations affecting our business and operations, see “– If we fail to protect customer data and privacy, our reputation, financial condition and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected.” We may be adversely affected by the complexity, uncertainties and changes in the PRC regulations of Internet-related businesses and companies, and any lack of requisite licenses, permits or approvals applicable to our business may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. The PRC government extensively regulates the Internet industry, including foreign ownership of, and the licensing and permit requirements pertaining to, companies in the internet industry. These Internet-related laws and regulations are relatively new and evolving, and their interpretation and enforcement involve significant uncertainties. As a result, in certain circumstances it may be difficult to determine what actions or omissions may be deemed to be in violation of applicable laws and regulations. We only have contractual control over the entities that provide Internet information provision services in China. We do not own such entities due to the restriction of foreign investment in businesses providing value-added telecommunication services in China, including Internet information provision services. This may significantly disrupt our business, subject us to sanctions, compromise enforceability of related contractual arrangements, or have other harmful effects on us. The evolving PRC regulatory system for the Internet industry may lead to the establishment of new regulatory agencies. For example, in May 2011, the State Council announced the establishment of a new department, the CAC, with the involvement of the State Council Information Office, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, and the Ministry of Public Security. The primary role of this new agency is to facilitate the policy-making and legislative development in this field, to direct and coordinate with the relevant departments in connection with online content administration and to deal with cross-ministry regulatory matters in relation to the Internet industry. In practice, PRC regulators, including the CAC, have been increasingly focused on regulation in the areas of data security and data protection, and are enhancing the protection of privacy and data security by rule-making and enforcement actions at central and local levels. For example, on July 7, 2022, the CAC promulgated the Measures on Security Assessment of Cross-border Data Transfer, or the Data Export Measures, which has become effective on September 1, 2022. The Data Export Measures require that any data processor which processes or exports personal information exceeding certain volume threshold under such measures shall apply for security assessment by the CAC before transferring any personal information abroad. The security assessment requirement also applies to any transfer of important data outside of China. We expect that these areas will receive greater and continued attention and scrutiny from regulators and the public going forward, which could increase our compliance costs and subject us to heightened risks and challenges associated with data security and protection. Considering our business arrangement and development plan, we have set up another set of VIE structures and intend the new VIE or its subsidiaries to apply for or hold the value-added telecommunications business license(s) as soon as practical to conduct value-added telecommunications business such as Internet information services. See “Item 3. Key Information – Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business.” We cannot guarantee that our new VIE, Beijing Yiyi or its subsidiary, will continue or maintain such value-added telecommunications business license due to uncertainties from PRC governmental authorities. Beijing Yiyi’s subsidiary, Beijing U-Tiger Network Technology Co., LTD, holds the License for Production and Operation of Radio and TV Programs issued on June 4, 2024, and the Business License for Value-added Telecommunications Business issued on July 22, 2022. Beijing Yiyi’s subsidiary, Beijing Yixin Xiangshang 21 Table of Contents Technology Co.,LTD, holds the Business License for Value-added Telecommunications Business issued on July 25, 2024. Beijing Yiyi’s subsidiary, Beijing Zhi Jian Feng Yi Information Technology Co., LTD, holds the License for Production and Operation of Radio and TV Programs issued on July 27, 2023, the Business License for Value-added Telecommunications Business issued on March 21, 2024, the License for Publication Business issued on April 25, 2022. In addition, our provision of certain services online may subject us to license requirements in China. For instance, we provide some recorded videos as a way of customer education and occasionally launch other audio-video contents on our platform and our community, which may result in audio-video license requirements from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, or MCT, National Radio and Television Administration, Cyberspace Administration of China, or their provincial level branches. The Internet Audio-Video Program Services Regulations only allow state-owned or state-controlled enterprises to apply for certain licenses, which means that we may not be able to obtain all required licenses. We also provide some digital works on our website and APP, which may require online publishing service license issued by the National Radio and Television Administration, or the NRTA, or its provincial level branches. In addition, we reprint some articles related to the stock market on our website and APP, and therefore may be subject to permit and approval requirements from the State Council Information Office. Furthermore, we also need to strictly follow the requirements applicable to online content providers set forth by the relevant regulatory authorities, especially for financial information. See “Item 3. Key Information – We are subject to numerous regulations in the PRC, and compliance with these regulations may result in costs, expenses, regulatory enforcement action, and reputational harm that may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations” and “Item 3. Key Information – Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business.” Failure to comply with these license or other requirements may subject us to penalties, which may adversely affect our business operations and reputation. The interpretation and application of the existing PRC laws, regulations and policies and possible new laws, regulations or policies relating to the Internet industry have created uncertainties regarding the legality of the existing and future foreign investments in, and the businesses and activities of, Internet businesses in China, including our business. We cannot assure you that we have obtained all the permits or licenses related to our Internet related business in China that might be required for conducting our supporting functions in China or will be able to maintain our existing licenses or obtain new ones. In the event that the PRC government considers that we were operating without the proper approvals, licenses or permits, promulgates new laws and regulations that require additional approvals or licenses, or imposes additional restrictions on the operation of any part of our business, it has the power, among other things, to bring enforcement action against us, levy fines, confiscate our income, revoke our business licenses, and require us to discontinue our relevant business or impose restrictions on the affected portion of our business. Any of these actions by the PRC government may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. The audit report included in this annual report has been prepared by our independent registered public accounting firm, whose work the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board was previously unable to inspect and, as such, you have previously been deprived of the benefits of such inspection and may be deprived of such benefits in the future if the work of our independent registered public accounting firm is unable to be inspected again. Our independent registered public accounting firm that has issued the audit report included in this annual report, KPMG Huazhen LLP, as an auditor of companies that are traded publicly in the United States and as a firm registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), or the PCAOB, is required by the laws of the United States to undergo regular inspections by the PCAOB to assess its compliance with the laws of the United States and professional standards. Because we have substantial operations within the PRC and the PCAOB was unable to conduct inspections of the work of our independent registered public accounting firm as it relates to those operations without the approval of the Chinese authorities prior to 2022, our independent registered public accounting firm was not inspected fully by the PCAOB prior to 2022. This prior lack of PCAOB inspections in the PRC prevented the PCAOB from regularly evaluating our independent registered public accounting firm’s audits and its quality control procedures. As a result, investors were previously deprived of the benefits of PCAOB inspections. As discussed above under “Item 3. Key Information,” in 2022 the PCAOB was able to secure complete access to inspect and investigate audit firms in the PRC for the first time, and on December 15, 2022, the PCAOB vacated its 2021 determination that the positions taken by authorities in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong prevented it from inspecting and investigating completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in those jurisdictions. 22 Table of Contents There can be no guarantee that the PCAOB will continue to be able to fully inspect our independent registered public accounting firm’s work in the future, due to factors outside our control. Inspections of other firms that the PCAOB has conducted outside the PRC have identified deficiencies in those firms’ audit procedures and quality control procedures, which may be addressed as part of the inspection process to improve future audit quality. The inability of the PCAOB to conduct full inspections of auditors in the PRC made it more difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit procedures or quality control procedures as compared to auditors outside the PRC that are subject to PCAOB inspections, which could cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information and procedures and the quality of our financial statements. We may be subject to consequences pursuant to the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act and related regulations, including the potential for our ADSs to be prohibited from trading on U.S. securities exchanges, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, and in the U.S. over-the-counter market, which will limit the liquidity of our ADSs and our access to U.S. capital markets. As discussed above under “Item 3. Key Information,” the HFCAA requires the SEC to prohibit the securities of any “covered issuer,” from being traded on any of the U.S. securities exchanges, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, or traded “over-the-counter,” if the auditor of the covered issuer’s financial statements is not subject to PCAOB inspection for, initially, three consecutive years. In December 2021, the SEC adopted final rules, including amendments to Form 20-F, to implement the HFCAA and establish procedures the SEC will follow in determining whether a registrant is a “Commission-Identified Issuer” (as defined in the final rule). Consistent with the HFCAA, these amendments require the submission of documentation to the SEC establishing that a “Commission-Identified Issuer” is not owned or controlled by a governmental entity in that foreign jurisdiction and also require disclosure in a foreign issuer’s annual report regarding the audit arrangements of, and governmental influence on, such registrant, including any consolidated VIEs or other similar structures. On May 26, 2022, the SEC added the Company to its conclusive list of Commission-Identified Issuers. In December 2022, the Accelerating Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act was signed into law, which amended the HFCAA to (i) shorten the three-year period to two years and (ii) allow any foreign jurisdiction to be the basis for the PCAOB’s incomplete access to inspect or investigate a company’s auditor. Initially, the HFCAA applied only if the PCAOB’s inability to inspect or investigate resulted from a stance taken by an authority in the foreign jurisdiction where the relevant public accounting firm operated. Following the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023, the HFCAA now also applies if the PCAOB’s inability to inspect or investigate the relevant accounting firm arises from a stance taken by an authority in any foreign jurisdiction, irrespective of the location of the accounting firm. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report on its determinations that it is unable to inspect or investigate PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in Chinese mainland and in Hong Kong because of positions taken by PRC authorities in those jurisdictions. Our independent registered public accounting firm was subject to the determinations announced by the PCAOB on December 16, 2021. On August 26, 2022, the PCAOB announced that it signed a Statement of Protocol with the CSRC and the Ministry of Finance, which it described as the first step toward opening access for the PCAOB to inspect and investigate completely registered public accounting firms in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB vacated its 2021 determination that the positions taken by authorities in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong prevented it from inspecting and investigating completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in those jurisdictions. Consequently, the PCAOB is currently able to inspect the work of PCAOB-registered independent registered public accounting firms, including ours, in Chinese mainland and Hong Kong. In light of the PCAOB’s decision to vacate its 2021 determination and until such time as the PCAOB issues any new adverse determination, the SEC has stated that there are no issuers at risk of having their securities subject to a trading prohibition under the HFCAA. However, whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections of such firms is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our control. If the PCAOB again becomes unable to conduct a full inspection of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit documentation related to their audit reports for two consecutive years, then our ADSs may be prohibited from trading on U.S. securities exchanges, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, and in the U.S. over-the-counter market, which will limit the liquidity of our ADSs and our access to U.S. capital markets. 23 Table of Contents The HFCAA, related SEC and PCAOB rules, and any additional rulemaking efforts to increase U.S. regulatory access to audit information in China, could cause investor uncertainty for affected companies, including us, and the market price of our ADSs could be materially adversely affected. We are subject to numerous regulations in the PRC, and compliance with these regulations may result in costs, expenses, regulatory enforcement action, and reputational harm that may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. We are subject to numerous regulations in the PRC, including those described in detail below under “Item 3. Key Information – Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business.” These regulatory requirements are evolving, and new regulatory requirements affecting us may be adopted. Compliance with these regulations involves costs, fees, and expenses, as well as time and attention from our leadership team. Additionally, if we fail to comply in full with applicable regulations, we may be subject to government enforcement action, which may be costly, impose operational burdens on us, and cause us reputational harm, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. The legal system of the PRC is developing and rapidly evolving, and there are uncertainties that may affect the protection afforded to us. Our business and activities in China are governed by the PRC laws and regulations. The PRC legal system is generally based on written statutes. Prior court decisions may be cited for reference but have limited precedential value. Since 1979, PRC legislation and regulations have significantly enhanced the protections afforded to various industries in China. However, as these laws and regulations are developing and continue to evolve, interpretation and enforcement of these laws and regulations involve significant uncertainties and different degrees of inconsistency. Some of the laws and regulations are still in the developmental stage and are therefore subject to policy changes. Many laws, regulations, policies and legal requirements have only been recently adopted by PRC central or local government agencies, and their implementation, interpretation and enforcement may involve uncertainty due to the lack of established practice available for reference. We cannot predict the effect of future legal developments in China, including the promulgation of new laws, changes in existing laws or their interpretation or enforcement, or the preemption of local regulations by national laws. For example, the PRC government has recently published new policies that significantly affected certain industries such as the education and internet industries, and we cannot rule out the possibility that it will in the future release regulations or policies regarding our industry that could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. As a result, there are uncertainties as to the legal protections available to us. Furthermore, due to the limited volume of published cases and the non-binding nature of prior court decisions, the outcome of the dispute resolution may not be as consistent or predictable as in other more developed jurisdictions, which may limit the legal protection available to us. For example, the Securities Law most recently amended in December 2019 and effective on March 1, 2020, stipulated that the offering and trading of securities outside the PRC which disrupt the domestic market order of the PRC and harm the legitimate rights and interests of domestic investors shall be dealt with pursuant to the relevant provisions of this Securities Law, and legal liability shall be pursued. The PRC government’s significant oversight over our business operation could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs, and it has recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight and control over overseas securities offerings and other capital markets activities and foreign investment in China-based companies. As a result of its significant oversight authority into businesses operating in the PRC, the PRC government may regulate our operations as the government deems appropriate to advance regulatory and societal goals and policy positions. Uncertainties regarding the enforcement of laws and the fact that rules and regulations in the PRC can change quickly with little advance notice, along with the risk of the PRC government's significant oversight over our operations, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial position, results of operations, access to the capital markets, and the market value of our ADSs. Furthermore, on July 6, 2021, the General Office of the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued Several Opinions Concerning Lawfully and Strictly Cracking Down Illegal 24 Table of Contents Securities Activities. These opinions call for strengthened regulation over illegal securities activities and supervision on overseas listings by China-based companies like us, and propose to take effective measures, such as promoting the construction of relevant regulatory systems to deal with the risks and incidents faced by China-based overseas-listed companies. On February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and relevant five guidelines, which became effective on March 31, 2023. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures comprehensively improve and reform the existing regulatory regime for overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities and regulates both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities by adopting a filing-based regulatory regime. On the same day, the CSRC also held a press conference for the release of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and issued the Notice on Administration for the Filing of Overseas Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, which, among others, clarifies that (i) prior to the effective date of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, Chinese mainland domestic companies that have already completed overseas listing shall be regarded as “existing companies”, which are not required to fulfill filing procedure immediately but shall be required to complete the filing if such existing companies conduct refinancing in the future; and (ii) the CSRC will solicit opinions from relevant regulatory authorities and complete the filing of the overseas listing of companies with contractual arrangements which duly meet the compliance requirements, and support the development and growth of these companies by enabling them to utilize two markets and two kinds of resources. We believe, to the best of our knowledge, our business operations do not violate any of the above PRC laws and regulations currently in force in all material respects. Nevertheless, we cannot guarantee that new rules or regulations promulgated in the future will not impose any additional requirement on us. If there are any other approvals, filings and/or other administration procedures to be obtained from or completed with any other PRC regulatory agencies as required by any new laws and regulations for any of our future proposed offering of securities overseas or the listing of the ADSs, we cannot assure you that we can obtain the required approval or complete the required filings or other regulatory procedures in a timely manner, or at all. Any failure to obtain the relevant approvals or complete the filings and other relevant regulatory procedures may subject us to regulatory actions or other sanctions from such PRC regulatory agencies, which may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations. Additionally, if our clients fail to meet regulatory requirements, it may impact our underwriting business, thereby having a negative effect on our revenue. For more details, please refer to “Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business - Regulations Relating to Overseas Offerings”. PRC regulation of loans and direct investment by offshore holding companies to PRC entities may delay or prevent us from using proceeds we received from our initial public offering and the Concurrent Private Placement to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries. In 2015, the SAFE published the Circular of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming the Management Approach regarding the Settlement of Foreign Exchange Capital of Foreign-invested Enterprises, or the SAFE Circular 19, which has come into effect since June 1, 2015. According to the SAFE Circular 19, foreign-invested enterprises are allowed to convert their registered capital from foreign exchange to Renminbi and apply such funds to equity investment within the PRC, conditioned upon the investment target’s duly registration with local bank of such reinvestment and open a corresponding special account pending for foreign exchange settlement payment. Further, such conversion will be handled at the bank level and does not need to be approved by the SAFE. The SAFE Circular 19 prohibits foreign-invested enterprises from, among other things, using an RMB fund converted from its foreign exchange capital for expenditure beyond its business scope, investment in securities, providing entrusted loans, repaying loans between nonfinancial enterprises or purchasing real estate not for self-use. The SAFE promulgated the Circular on Reforming and Standardizing the Foreign Exchange Settlement Management Policy of Capital Account, or the SAFE Circular 16, effective on June 9, 2016, which reiterates some of the rules set forth in the SAFE Circular 19, but changes the prohibition against using RMB capital converted from foreign currency-denominated registered capital of a foreign-invested enterprise to issue RMB entrusted loans, to the prohibition against using such capital to issue loans to non-associated enterprises. 25 Table of Contents As a holding company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands, with some of our operations conducted in China, we may make loans to our PRC subsidiaries and VIEs, or we may make additional capital contributions to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries in China. Any loans provided by us to our PRC subsidiaries and VIEs are subject to PRC regulations and foreign exchange loan registrations. Such loans to any of our PRC subsidiaries and VIEs cannot exceed a statutory limit and must be filed with SAFE through the online filing system of SAFE pursuant to the applicable PRC regulations. Any such loan with a term of one year or more must be recorded and registered with the National Development and Reform Commission. In addition, the capital of a foreign invested enterprise may not be used for the following purposes: (i) directly or indirectly used for payment beyond the business scope of the enterprises or the payment prohibited by relevant laws and regulations; (ii) directly or indirectly used for investment in securities or investments other than banks’ principal-secured products unless otherwise provided by relevant laws and regulations; (iii) the granting of loans to non-affiliated enterprises, except where it is expressly permitted in the business license; and (iv) paying the expenses related to the purchase of real estate that is not for self-use (except for the foreign-invested real estate enterprises). Our ability to make loans or capital contributions to our subsidiaries and VIEs may be constrained by these regulations, and if we fail to comply with such regulations, our ability to capitalize the relevant PRC subsidiaries or fund our operations may be negatively affected, which could materially and adversely affect the liquidity of our relevant PRC subsidiaries or our business, financial condition, results of operations and growth prospects. We may be subject to penalties, including restrictions on our ability to inject capital into our PRC subsidiaries, if our PRC resident shareholders or beneficial owners fail to comply with relevant PRC foreign exchange regulations. On July 4, 2014, the SAFE issued the Circular on Several Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Administration of Domestic Residents Engaging in Overseas Investment, Financing and Round-Trip Investment via Special Purpose Vehicles, or the SAFE Circular 37, which replaced the previous Notice on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Residents’ Financing and Roundtrip Investment Through Offshore Special Purpose Vehicles, effective on November 1, 2005, or the SAFE Circular 75. The SAFE Circular 37 requires PRC individuals, institutions and foreign individuals who have a habitual residence in the PRC due to economic interests, or collectively referred as the PRC residents, to register with the SAFE or its local branches in connection with their direct establishment or indirect control of an offshore entity, for the purpose of overseas investment and financing, with such PRC residents’ legally owned assets or equity interests in domestic enterprises or offshore assets or interests. Such offshore entity is referred to as an offshore special purpose vehicle. In addition, such PRC residents must update their foreign exchange registrations with the SAFE when the offshore special purpose vehicle undergoes material events relating to any change of basic information (including change of such PRC residents, name and operation term), increases or decreases in investment amount, share transfers or exchanges, or mergers or divisions. According to the Circular on Further Simplifying and Improving the Administration of Foreign Exchange Concerning Direct Investment released on February 13, 2015 by the SAFE, local banks will examine and handle foreign exchange registration for overseas direct investment, including the initial foreign exchange registration and amendment registration, under the SAFE Circular 37 from June 1, 2015. If any shareholder holding interest in an offshore special purpose vehicle, who is a PRC resident as determined by the SAFE Circular 37, fails to fulfill the required foreign exchange registration with the local SAFE branches or its designated banks, the offshore special purpose vehicle may be restricted in its ability to contribute additional capital to its PRC subsidiaries. Moreover, failure to comply with the SAFE registration described above could result in liability under PRC laws for evasion of applicable foreign exchange restrictions. Mr. Tianhua Wu and some other individual shareholders, who indirectly hold shares in our company and who are known to us as being PRC residents have completed the SAFE registration pursuant to the SAFE Circular 37. We have requested all of our current shareholders and/or beneficial owners to disclose whether they or their shareholders or beneficial owners fall within the ambit of the SAFE Circular 37 and urged relevant shareholders, upon learning that they are PRC residents, to register with the local SAFE branch or its designated bank as required under the SAFE Circular 37. However, we may not be fully informed of the identities of all our shareholders or beneficial owners who are PRC residents, and we cannot provide any assurance that all of our shareholders and beneficial owners who are PRC residents will comply with our requests to make, obtain or update any applicable registrations or comply with other requirements pursuant to the SAFE Circular 37 or other related rules in a timely manner. Failure of our existing and future shareholders who are PRC residents to register or amend their foreign exchange registrations in a timely 26 Table of Contents manner pursuant to the SAFE Circular 37 and subsequent implementation rules may subject such beneficial owners or our wholly-owned PRC subsidiary to fines and legal sanctions. Failure to register or comply with the relevant requirements may also limit our ability to contribute additional capital to our WFOEs for the research and development and other supporting functions. These risks may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. You may be subject to PRC withholding tax on dividends from us and PRC income tax on any gain realized on the transfer of our shares or ADSs if we are deemed a PRC resident enterprise. As described above, we may be treated as a PRC resident enterprise for PRC tax purposes. Under the EIT Law and its implementation rules, PRC withholding tax at the rate of 10% is normally applicable to PRC sourced dividends payable to investors that are non-PRC resident enterprises, which do not have an establishment or place of business in PRC, or which have such establishment or place of business if the relevant income is not effectively connected with the establishment or place of business. Any gain realized on the transfer of ADSs or shares by such non-PRC resident enterprise investors is also subject to a 10% PRC income tax if such gain is regarded as income derived from sources within the PRC. Under the PRC Individual Income Tax Law and its implementation rules, PRC sourced dividends paid to non-PRC individual investors are generally subject to a PRC withholding tax at a rate of 20% and gains from PRC sources realized by such investors on the transfer of ADSs or shares are generally subject to a 20% PRC income tax. While substantially all of our brokerage operations are in New Zealand or Singapore, it is unclear whether dividends we pay with respect to our ADSs, or the gain realized from the transfer of our ADSs, would be treated as the income derived from sources within the PRC and as a result be subject to PRC income tax if we were considered a PRC resident enterprise, as described above. See Item 3.D “Risk Factors — Risks Related to Doing Business in China – We may be deemed to be a PRC resident enterprise under the Enterprise Income Tax Law, or the EIT Law, and be subject to the PRC taxation on our worldwide income, which may significantly increase our income tax expenses and materially decrease our profitability.” If PRC income tax were imposed on gains realized through the transfer of our ADSs or on dividends paid to our non-resident investors, the value of your investment in our ADSs may be materially and adversely affected. Any PRC tax liability described above may be reduced under applicable tax treaties. However, it is unclear whether our ADS holders whose jurisdictions of residence have tax treaties or arrangements with China will be able to obtain the benefits of such tax treaties or arrangements, if the prerequisites provided under the relevant treaties or arrangements were not satisfied. We may not be able to obtain certain tax benefits for dividends paid by our PRC subsidiaries to us through our Hong Kong subsidiaries. Pursuant to the EIT Law and its implementation rules, if a non-resident enterprise has not set up an establishment in the PRC, or has set up an establishment therein but its income has no actual connection with such establishment, it will be subject to a withholding tax on its PRC-sourced income at a rate of 10%. Pursuant to the Arrangement between the Chinese mainland and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with Respect to Taxes on Income, or the “Double Taxation Arrangement,” the withholding tax rate on dividends paid by a PRC enterprise to a Hong Kong enterprise is reduced to 5% from a standard rate of 10% if the Hong Kong enterprise directly holds at least 25% of the equity interests of the PRC enterprise. There are also other conditions for enjoying the reduced withholding tax rate according to other relevant tax rules and regulations. See Item 4.B “Business Overview-Operating and Financial Review and Prospects-Regulations Relating to Tax-PRC Regulations on Dividend Withholding Tax.” We cannot assure you that our determination regarding our qualification to enjoy the preferential tax treatment will not be challenged by the relevant PRC tax authority that or we will be able to complete the necessary filings with the relevant PRC tax authority and enjoy the preferential withholding tax rate of 5% under the Double Taxation Arrangement with respect to dividends to be paid by our PRC subsidiaries to our Hong Kong subsidiaries. PRC regulations may restrict our ability to convert Renminbi into foreign currency and remit such currency out of the PRC to pay capital expenses. The Group’s revenues were largely generated by our wholly owned subsidiaries outside of PRC, which pay the consolidated VIEs and their subsidiaries periodically for the services rendered through inter-company transactions. We do not rely on the consolidated VIEs to distribute earnings to the parent company or to U.S. investors. Under existing PRC foreign exchange regulations, payments of current account items, including profit distributions, interest 27 Table of Contents payments and trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, can be made in foreign currencies without the prior SAFE approval as long as certain routine procedural requirements are fulfilled. Therefore, our PRC subsidiaries are allowed to pay dividends in foreign currencies to us without prior SAFE approval by following certain routine procedural requirements. However, approval from or registration with competent government authorities is required where Renminbi is to be converted into foreign currency and remitted out of China to pay capital expenses such as the repayment of loans denominated in foreign currencies. The PRC government may at its discretion restrict access to foreign currencies for current account transactions in the future, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. Contractual Arrangements with the VIEs and Their Respective Shareholders We use contractual arrangements to control the VIEs due to restrictions or prohibitions on foreign ownership of Internet technology services and other related businesses in China. According to the Negative List (as defined elsewhere in this report) that took effect on November 1, 2024, the restrictions on the controlling stake of Internet technology service companies still exist, and foreign investments in this business are also restricted by other qualifications and requirements under relevant regulations in China. Our WFOEs, Beijing Bohu and Beijing Yixin, respectively, have the sole discretion to receive from the relevant VIE an annual service fee at an amount of at least 99% of the respective VIE’s annual net profit. In addition, Beijing Bohu and Beijing Yixin are entitled to receive certain fees for other technical services at the amount mutually agreed upon by Beijing Bohu or Beijing Yixin and the respective VIE. Beijing Bohu and Beijing Yixin did not collect any service fees from the VIEs in the last three fiscal years and will make discretionary determinations on whether to collect services fees and on the amount of fees to be collected. We do not have unfettered access to Beijing Bohu’s, Beijing Yixin’s and the respective VIEs’ revenues due to PRC legal restrictions on the payment of dividends by PRC companies, foreign exchange control restrictions, and the restrictions on foreign investment, among others. As a result of our direct ownership in Beijing Bohu and Beijing Yixin, and the contractual arrangements with the VIEs, we are regarded as the primary beneficiary of the VIEs, and we treat them as our consolidated affiliated entities under U.S. GAAP. We have consolidated the financial results of the VIEs in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Agreements that provide us with effective control over the VIEs Powers of Attorney. Pursuant to the Powers of Attorney dated November 1, 2023 among Beijing Bohu and each of the shareholders of Beijing Rongke, which replaced and superseded the prior version dated October 11, 2022 because some of the shareholders exited Beijing Rongke, each of the shareholders of Beijing Rongke irrevocably authorized Beijing Bohu to act as its attorney-in-fact to exercise all of its rights as a shareholder of Beijing Rongke, including, but not limited to, the right to attend shareholders’ meetings, vote on any resolution that requires a shareholder vote, such as the sale, transfer, disposal and pledge of all or part of the equity interest owned by such shareholder, and decide on the appointment and removal of directors, supervisors and officers. Beijing Bohu can assign or transfer under the aforementioned Powers of Attorney at its own discretion to any other person or entity without notice to or consent from any or all of the shareholders of Beijing Rongke. The Power of Attorney will remain effective and irrevocable with respect to each shareholder of Beijing Rongke until he or she ceases to be a shareholder of Beijing Rongke. On October 30, 2018, Beijing Yixin and each of the shareholders of Beijing Yiyi entered into a Power of Attorney, which contain terms substantially similar to the Powers of Attorney executed by the shareholders of Beijing Rongke described above. Exclusive Option Contracts. Pursuant to the Exclusive Option Contract dated November 1, 2023, among Beijing Bohu, Beijing Rongke and each shareholder of Beijing Rongke, which replaced and superseded the version dated October 11, 2022 because some of the shareholders exited Beijing Rongke, the shareholders of Beijing Rongke have irrevocably granted Beijing Bohu an exclusive option to purchase all or part of their equity interests in Beijing Rongke. 28 Table of Contents Beijing Rongke has irrevocably granted Beijing Bohu an exclusive option to purchase all or part of its assets. Beijing Bohu or its designated person(s) may exercise such options at RMB10 or at the lowest price permitted under applicable PRC laws, whichever is lower. The shareholders of Beijing Rongke undertake that, without Beijing Bohu’s prior written consent, they will not, among other things, (i) create any pledge or encumbrance on their equity interests in Beijing Rongke, (ii) transfer or otherwise dispose of their equity interests in Beijing Rongke, (iii) change Beijing Rongke’s registered capital, (iv) supplement, revise or amend Beijing Rongke’s articles of association, or (v) allow Beijing Rongke to merge with any other entity. In addition, Beijing Rongke undertakes that, without Beijing Bohu’s prior written consent, it will not, among other things, create any pledge or encumbrance on any of its assets, or enter into any material contracts (except in the ordinary course of business). The Exclusive Option Contract will remain effective for a term of ten years and renewable in accordance with the sole discretion of Beijing Bohu. On October 30, 2018, Beijing Yixin and each shareholder of Beijing Yiyi entered into an Exclusive Option Contract which contain terms substantially similar to the Exclusive Option Contract described above. Spouse Consent Letters. Pursuant to the Spouse Consent Letters dated December 17, 2018, the spouse of each married shareholder of Beijing Rongke which restated and amended the version dated June 7, 2018, unconditionally and irrevocably agreed not to assert any rights over the equity interest in Beijing Rongke held by and registered in the name of their spouse. In addition, each of them agreed to be bound by the contractual arrangements described here if the spouse obtains any equity interest in Beijing Rongke for any reason. On October 30, 2018, the spouse of each shareholder of Beijing Yiyi signed two Spouse Consent Letters, which contain terms substantially similar to the Spouse Consent Letters described above. Commitment Letters. Pursuant to the Commitment Letters dated November 1, 2023, the shareholders of Beijing Rongke which replaced and superseded the version dated October 11, 2022 because some of the shareholders exited Beijing Rongke, undertake that, when Beijing Bohu exercises its options under the Exclusive Option Contracts, they will refund, without any conditions, any amount and fees to Beijing Bohu which exceed the share purchase price provided in the Exclusive Option Contracts. On October 30, 2018, each of the shareholders of Beijing Yiyi executed a Commitment Letter, which contain terms substantially similar to the Commitment Letters described above. Agreements that allow us to receive economic benefits from the VIEs Equity Pledge Contracts. Pursuant to the Equity Pledge Contract dated November 1, 2023 among Beijing Bohu(previously known as Ningxia Yixin), Beijing Rongke (previously known as Ningxia Rongke) and each shareholder of Beijing Rongke, which replaced and superseded the version dated October 11, 2022 because some of the shareholders exited Beijing Rongke, the shareholders of Beijing Rongke have agreed to pledge 100% of the equity interests in Beijing Rongke for the benefit of Beijing Bohu. In the event of a breach by Beijing Rongke or its any shareholder of contractual obligations under the Equity Pledge Contract, Beijing Bohu, as pledgee, will have the right to dispose of the pledged 100% equity interests in Beijing Bohu and will have priority in receiving the proceeds from such disposal. The shareholders of Beijing Rongke also undertake that, without prior written consent of Beijing Bohu, they will not dispose of, create or allow any encumbrance on the pledged equity interests and rights. Beijing Rongke further undertakes that, there is no other pledge or any other encumbrance on the assets owned by it that will or is likely to affect Beijing Bohu’s pledged equity interests and rights, including but not limited to any transfer of intellectual property rights or transfer of any asset with a value exceeding RMB0.5 million (except in the ordinary course of business). Beijing Rongke further undertakes that, without the prior written consent of Beijing Bohu, they will not assist or allow any encumbrance to be created on the pledged equity interests. The equity pledge under the Amended Equity Pledge Contract will not be effective until Beijing Rongke and its shareholders complete relevant registration with appropriate government authorities. On October 30, 2018, Beijing Yixin, Beijing Yiyi and each shareholder of Beijing Yiyi entered into an Equity Pledge Contract, which contains terms substantially similar to the Amended Equity Pledge Contract described above. 29 Table of Contents We completed the registration of the equity pledge of Beijing Yiyi on December 27, 2018 under the Equity Pledge Contract with the State Administration for Market Regulation (the “SAMR”), in accordance with the PRC Property Rights Law. Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreements. Pursuant to the Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement dated June 7, 2018 between Beijing Bohu and Beijing Rongke, Beijing Bohu has the exclusive right to provide Beijing Rongke with the consulting and technical services required by Beijing Rongke’s business. Without Beijing Bohu’s prior written consent, Beijing Rongke may not accept any services subject to this Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement from any third party. Beijing Rongke agrees to pay Beijing Bohu an annual service fee at an amount of no less than 99% of its net profit or the amount which is adjusted at any time at the sole discretion of Beijing Bohu. Beijing Bohu has the exclusive ownership of all the intellectual property rights created as a result of the performance of the Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement, to the extent permitted by applicable PRC laws. Beijing Rongke also undertakes that upon the request of Beijing Bohu, it will assist Beijing Bohu in the consummation of the assignment or transfer of the relevant intellectual property rights, including but not limited to entering into a transfer or license agreement at no or a nominal consideration as well as fulfilling the necessary registration. To guarantee Beijing Rongke’s performance of its obligations thereunder, its shareholders have pledged their equity interests in Beijing Rongke to Beijing Bohu pursuant to the Equity Pledge Contract. The Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement will remain effective for a term of ten years and unconditionally renewable at the sole discretion of Beijing Bohu. On October 30, 2018, Beijing Yixin and Beijing Yiyi entered into an Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement, which contains terms substantially similar to the Exclusive Business Cooperation Agreement described above. Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business We are subject to regulation by multiple PRC laws, regulations, and governing authorities, as described in more detail below. To date, except as disclosed under the risk factor headed “We may be adversely affected by the complexity, uncertainties and changes in the PRC regulations of Internet-related businesses and companies, and any lack of requisite licenses, permits or approvals applicable to our business may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations” and subject to the official interpretation and implementation of and potential further action pursuant to CSRC 1230 Notice (as defined below), to our knowledge our PRC subsidiaries and the VIEs have received all permissions or approvals that we believe are required and necessary to conduct our current business operations within the PRC in all material aspects. In reaching this determination, we have relied in part on the advice of our PRC legal counsel, JunHe LLP. However, there is no guarantee that we will be able to obtain all requisite permissions and approvals in the future. Besides, if the CSRC imposes other further regulatory actions or penalties on us, our business and results of operations within the PRC may be materially and adversely affected. In addition, there are uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules and the PRC regulatory authorities may take a view that is contrary to the opinion of us. For more information, refer to the risk factor above under the heading “If the agreements that establish the structure for operating some of our activities in China do not comply with PRC regulations, or if we fail to obtain all required permissions and approvals required by Chinese regulatory authorities or if these regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations.” PRC Regulations Relating to Securities and Futures Brokerage Business Under existing PRC securities laws and regulations, including the Securities Law of the PRC, which became effective on March 1, 2020, operating securities business in the PRC, including, among others, securities brokerage business, futures brokerage business, stock option brokerage business, and securities and futures investment consulting services, requires a securities brokerage license or certain other approvals from the Chinese Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC. In addition, the Securities Law also stipulates that the offering and trading of securities outside the PRC which disrupt the domestic market order of the PRC and harm the legitimate rights and interests of domestic investors are subject to the relevant provisions of the Securities Law and the legal liabilities imposed thereunder. The Securities Law places particular emphasis on, among other things, (i) the reform of the registration-based IPO system, (ii) the imposition of more severe punishments for violations, and (iii) the enhancement of protection for retail investors. 30 Table of Contents In early 2023, the CSRC’s Measures for the Administration of the Securities Brokerage Business took effect. Under these measures, an overseas securities business entity that conducts securities business or establishes a representative office in Chinese mainland shall obtain the approval of the securities regulatory authority of the State Council. The specific measures shall be formulated by the securities regulatory agency of the State Council and submitted to the State Council for approval. An overseas securities business entity violating Article 95 of the Regulations on Supervision and Administration of Securities Firms, directly or through its affiliates conducting activities such as opening accounts, marketing, and providing other overseas securities trading services for domestic investors without authorization, shall be penalized in accordance with the Securities Law of the PRC. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations may result in penalties, including rectification requirements, confiscation of illegal proceeds, fines, or even shutting down of business. We have received notices from the CSRC under these laws and regulations and have taken measures in response. For further details, see Item 3.D “Risk Factors-Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We may not be able to obtain or maintain all necessary licenses, permits and approvals and to make all necessary registrations and filings for our activities in multiple jurisdictions and related to residents therein, especially in China or otherwise related to PRC residents.” PRC Regulations Relating to Foreign Investment On September 6, 2024, the Special Administrative Measures for Market Access of Foreign Investment (Negative List) (2024 Edition), or the Negative List, was promulgated by the MOFCOM and NDRC and took effect on November 1, 2024, whereby the Special Administrative Measures for Market Access of Foreign Investment (Negative List) (2021 Edition) was simultaneously repealed. Specifically, the Negative List provides that foreign investors shall hold no more than 50% of the equity interests in a service provider operating certain value-added telecommunications services other than for e-commerce, domestic multi-party communication, store and forward class and call center. On March 15, 2019, the Foreign Investment Law of PRC, or the FIL, was issued by the National People’s Congress and took effect on January 1, 2020, which also provides that the industries in which foreign investment is not restricted and prohibited shall be administered under the principle of equal treatment to domestic investment. On December 26, 2019, the State Council published the FIL Implementation Rules, which took effect on January 1, 2020. Furthermore, on December 19, 2020, the NDRC and the MOFCOM jointly issued the Measures for Security Review of Foreign Investment, effective on January 18, 2021, which provides detailed guidance regarding security review of foreign investment that has a potential impact on national security. Foreign investment in telecommunications companies in the PRC is governed by the Provisions on Administration of Foreign-Invested Telecommunications Enterprises, or the Foreign-Invested Telecommunications Enterprises Provisions, which were promulgated by the State Council on December 11, 2001, and amended on September 10, 2008 and February 6, 2016. The Foreign-Invested Telecommunications Enterprises Provisions prohibits a foreign investor from holding over 50% of the total equity interests in any value-added telecommunications service business in Chinese mainland. On March 29, 2022, the State Council published the Decision of the State Council to Amend and Repeal Certain Administrative Regulations, among which the Foreign-Invested Telecommunications Enterprises Provisions was further amended. The latest version removes certain requirements for foreign-invested telecommunications enterprises and came into effect on May 1, 2022. PRC Regulations Relating to Internet Companies Regulations on Value-Added Telecommunication Services Pursuant to the Telecommunications Regulations of the PRC, or the Telecommunications Regulations, promulgated by the State Council on September 25, 2000 and amended on July 29, 2014 and February 6, 2016, telecommunication service providers must obtain an operating license prior to the commencement operations. The Telecommunications Regulations categorize telecommunication services into basic telecommunication services and value-added telecommunication services. According to the Catalog of Telecommunications Business, attached to the Telecommunications Regulations, information services provided via fixed network, mobile network and Internet fall within value-added telecommunication services. 31 Table of Contents Pursuant to the Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services, promulgated by the State Council in 2000 and amended in 2011, “Internet information services” refer to the provision of information through the Internet to online users, and are divided into “commercial Internet information services” and “non-commercial Internet information services”. Under the Telecommunications Regulations and relevant administrative measures, commercial operators of value-added telecommunications services must first obtain a license for conducting Internet content provision services, or an “ICP License”, from the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, or its provincial level branches. Otherwise, such operator might be subject to sanctions including corrective orders and warnings, imposition of fines and confiscation of illegal gains and, in the case of significant infringement, orders to close the website. Our consolidated affiliated entity, Beijing Yiyi’s subsidiaries have applied for or obtained ICP License for providing financial and market information to our users, while we cannot guarantee that Beijing Yiyi’s subsidiaries may at all times continue or maintain such license(s) due to uncertainties from PRC governmental authorities. With respect to the risk of not obtaining, continue or maintain the ICP License, please refer to “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure – We may be adversely affected by the complexity, uncertainties and changes in PRC regulation of Internet-related businesses and companies, and any lack of requisite licenses, permits or approvals applicable to our business may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.” Regulation on Mobile Internet Applications Information Services Our APP is also regulated by the Provisions on the Administration of Mobile Internet Applications Information Services, or the APP Provisions, promulgated by the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), on June 28, 2016 and amended in 2022. The latest version became effective on August 1, 2022. According to the APP Provisions, the providers of APPs shall not create, copy, publish or distribute information and content that is prohibited by laws and regulations. However, we cannot assure that all the information or content displayed on, retrieved from or linked to our APP comply with the requirements of the APP Provisions at all times. If our APP were found to be violating the APP Provisions, we may be subject to administrative penalties, including warning, service suspension or removal of our APP from the relevant APP store, which may materially and adversely affect our business and operating results. Besides, the MIIT issued the Notice of Carrying out the Filing of Mobile Internet Applications on July 21, 2023, which proposes the requirements that developers of Apps engaged in Internet information services within the PRC must comply with certain filing requirements in accordance with the relevant regulations and such holders shall not engage in the App Internet information service without completion of such filing. See “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure – We may be adversely affected by the complexity, uncertainties and changes in PRC regulation of Internet-related businesses and companies, and any lack of requisite licenses, permits or approvals applicable to our business may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.” Regulations on Internet Audio-Video Program Services The Administrative Regulations on Internet Audio-Video Program Services, or the Internet Audio-Video Program Services Regulations promulgated by the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, or the “SAPPRFT” (which has been divided into National Radio and Television Administration, or NRTA, National Press and Publication Administration, or NPPA, and China Film Administration), which became effective on January 31, 2008 and was amended on August 28, 2015, sets forth the principal rules and requirements on the Internet audio-video program services. According to the Internet Audio-Video Program Services Regulations and other regulations, an Internet audio-video program service provider must obtain an audio-video license issued by National Radio and Television Administration before spreading audio-video programs via the Internet. The audio-video program services are defined as the activities of making, editing and integrating audio-video programs and providing them to the public via the Internet or providing services for other people to upload and spread audio-video programs. In addition, the Internet Audio-Video Program Services Regulations only allow state-owned or state-controlled enterprises to apply for such license. Any entity that fails to obtain an audio-video license but operates relevant audio-video services may face administrative penalties including warnings, rectification orders and fines of no more than RMB30,000, and in severe cases, bans from doing business, confiscation of equipment utilized in providing such services and fines ranging from one to two times of the investment amounts of the entity. 32 Table of Contents Regulation on Internet Publishing On February 4, 2016, the SAPPRFT, and the MIIT jointly issued the Administrative Measures of Internet Publishing Services, or the Internet Publishing Measures, which became effective on March 10, 2016. According to the Internet Publishing Measures, an entity shall obtain an online publishing service license issued by the provincial branch of NPPA to provide online publishing services. Online publishing services refer to the provision of online publications to the public through information networks. Online publications refer to digital works with publishing features such as having been edited, produced or processed and are made available to the public through information networks. Regulations on Financial Information Services On December 26, 2018, the CAC promulgated the Provisions on Administration of Financial Information Services, taking effect on February 1, 2019. These provisions set forth general qualification, management and content requirements for financial information service providers if they provide financial information or data that may affect the financial market for users who engage in financial analysis, financial transactions, financial decisions or other financial activities. Specifically, financial information service providers are required to disclose the sources of the financial information or data in a clear and accurate manner, and shall not make, copy, publish or disseminate any content that covers, among others, false financial information that may detriment national financial security or stability of society, fictional event or news regarding the financial market (including that related to securities, funds, futures or foreign currency), or certain financial products or services that are forbidden by the competent regulatory authorities. Violations of any of the requirements in these provisions may subject the financial information service providers to penalties such as public condemnation and rectification orders. Regulations on Internet News Dissemination The State Council Information Office promulgated the Interim Administrative Regulations for Publication News by Internet Websites in 2000 and Administrative Regulations for Internet News Information Services in 2017. These regulations stipulate that general websites established by non-news organizations may publish news released by certain official news agencies if such websites satisfy the requirements set forth in these regulations but may not publish news items produced by themselves or other news sources. These regulations also require the general websites of non-news organizations to obtain permit and approval from the State Council Information Office at both the provincial and national level before they commence providing news dissemination services. Regulations on Cyber Security Internet information in China is heavily regulated and restricted from as a national security issue stand point. The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC, enacted the Decision on Internet Security Protection in December 2000, as further amended in August 2009, which impose criminal liabilities on persons or entities that: (i) gain improper entry into a computer or system of strategic importance; (ii) disseminate politically disruptive information; (iii) leak state secrets; (iv) spread false commercial information; or (v) infringe intellectual property rights. The Ministry of Public Security has promulgated measures that prohibit the use of the Internet in ways that would result in the leakage of state secrets or dissemination of socially destabilizing content. If an Internet information service provider violates these measures, the MPS and the local security bureaus may revoke its operating license and shut down its websites. In November 2016, the SCNPC promulgated the Cyber Security Law of the PRC, or the Cyber Security Law, which became effective on June 1, 2017, as further amended on October 28, 2025 and came into effect on January 1, 2026. The Cyber Security Law requires that network operators, which include, among others, Internet information services providers, take technical measures and other necessary measures in accordance with applicable laws and regulations and the compulsory requirements of the national and industrial standards to safeguard the safe and stable operation of its networks. We are subject to such requirements as we are providing certain Internet services through our APP and website. The Cyber Security Law further requires Internet information service providers to formulate contingency plans for network security incidents, report to the competent departments immediately upon the occurrence of any incident endangering cyber security and take corresponding remedial measures. In addition, according to the Cyber Security Law, operators of key information infrastructures, which include public communications and information service, energy, transportation, water conservancy, financial industry, public services, e-government affairs and other 33 Table of Contents important industries and fields, shall store personal information and important data gathered and produced during operations in the PRC within the territory of the PRC. Where such information and data need to be transmitted overseas based on commercial demand, a security assessment shall be conducted in accordance with the measures formulated by the national cyberspace administration authority in concert with the relevant departments under the State Council. On December 28, 2021, the CAC and other twelve PRC regulatory authorities jointly revised and promulgated the Measures for Cybersecurity Review, or the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which came into effect on February 15, 2022. Pursuant to the Cybersecurity Review Measures, besides the procurement of network products and services by critical information infrastructure operators, any data processing activities by network platform operators that affects or may affect national security shall be subject to the cybersecurity review as well. In accordance with the Cybersecurity Review Measures, operators mastering personal information of more than one million users must apply to the Cybersecurity Review Office for cybersecurity review when they seek for listing in a foreign country. The CAC may voluntarily conduct cyber security review if any network products and services and activities of data process affects or may affect national security. We may need to take certain security assessment measures on the personal data transmitted cross border. With respect to the risk of personal information and important data storage and cross border transmission, please refer to “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure – If we fail to protect customer data and privacy, our reputation, financial condition and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected.” The CSRC's Administrative Measures for Network and Information Security in the Securities and Futures Industries, which went into effect on May 1, 2023, regulate the network and information security of core institutions, operating institutions, and IT system service institutions in the industry. On August 6, 2023, the SAMR and the National Standardization Administration Committee jointly published the Data Security Risk Prevention and Control for Securities and Futures Industry—Guidelines of Data Classification (GB/T 42775-2023), which took effect on the same date, and describes the methods of classifying the data used or generated in the securities and futures industries. Although such specification is not a mandatory national standard but a recommended guideline, and it is not enforceable by law, the authority may use this standard to evaluate an entity’s compliance with China’s legal guidelines and regulations. On March 17, 2023, the SAMR and the National Standardization Administration Committee announced the issuance of the National Standards of the People’s Republic of China (No. 1 of 2023), which contains 12 sets of national standards on cybersecurity under the National Technical Security Standardization Committee of China, or TC260, including the Information Security Technology - Basic Requirements for Competence of Cybersecurity Workforce (GB/T 42446-2023). On April 26, 2023, the amended Counterespionage Law of the People’s Republic of China was promulgated which came into effect on July 1, 2023, establishing a close connection between data security and national security. It provides, among others, that engaging in the unauthorized provision of data or conducting cyberattacks against specific authorities is categorized as acts falling within the scope of espionage, and unlawfully acquiring or possessing documents, data, materials, or items that qualify as state secrets is strictly forbidden. On May 26, 2023, the Secretariat of the National Information Security Standardization Technical Committee published the Practice Guidelines for Cybersecurity Standards - Implementation Guidelines for Cyber Data Security Risk Assessment, implementing the requirements of the Data Security Law on data security risk assessment, which outlines the approach, workflow and key components of the data security risk assessment, including data security management, data processing activities, data security technology, and personal information protection. On September 11, 2025, the CAC promulgated the Administrative Measures for the Reporting of Cybersecurity Incidents, which came into effect on November 1, 2025, established a report system for network operators who construct or operate networks or provide services through networks, within the territory of the PRC when a cybersecurity incident occurs. The Regulations on Network Data Security was promulgated by the State Council on September 24, 2024 and became effective on January 1, 2025, according to which, a network data handler may transmit personal information abroad if 34 Table of Contents it meets any of the following conditions: (1) having passed the security assessment for data cross-border transmission organized by the state cyberspace administration; (2) having been certified by a specialized agency in respect of the protection of personal information in accordance with the provisions of the state cyberspace administration; (3) meeting the provisions on standard contract for cross-border transmission of personal information as developed by the state cyberspace administration; (4) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to conclude or perform a contract to which it is a party; (5) necessary to provide personal information of employees abroad under the employment rules and regulations formulated in accordance with the law and collective contracts concluded in accordance with the law; (6) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to perform statutory duties or obligations; (7) necessary to provide personal information abroad in order to protect the life, health and property security of natural persons in an emergency; and (8) other conditions provided for in laws, administrative regulations or by the state cyberspace administration. In addition, network data processors engaging in network data processing activities that affect or may affect national security shall undergo national security review. Regulations on Privacy Protection Internet information service providers are also required to maintain the integrity, confidentiality and availability of network data. The Cyber Security Law reaffirms the basic principles and requirements specified in other existing laws and regulations on personal data protection, such as the requirements on the collection, use, processing, storage and disclosure of personal data, and Internet information service providers being required to take technical and other necessary measures to ensure the security of the personal information they have collected and prevent the personal information from being divulged, damaged or lost. Any violation of the Cyber Security Law may subject the Internet information service provider to warnings, fines, confiscation of illegal gains, revocation of licenses, cancellation of filings, shutdown of websites or criminal liabilities. Under the Several Provisions on Regulating the Market Order of Internet Information Services issued by the MIIT in December 2011 and the Cyber Security Law, an Internet information service provider may not collect any user’s personal information or provide any such information to third parties without that user’s consent, and it must also expressly inform that user of the method, content and purpose of the collection and processing of such user’s personal information and may only collect such information as necessary for the provision of its services. In addition, pursuant to the Decision on Strengthening Internet Information Protection issued by the SCNPC in December 2012, the Order for the Protection of Telecommunication and Internet User’s Personal Information issued by the MIIT in July 2013 and the Cyber Security Law, any collection and use of a user’s personal information must be subject to the consent of the user, abide by the principles of legality, rationality and necessity and be within the specified purposes, methods and scopes. An Internet information service provider must also keep such information strictly confidential, and is further prohibited from divulging, tampering or destroying of any such information, or selling or providing such information to other parties. An Internet information service provider is required to take technical and other measures to prevent the collected personal information from any unauthorized disclosure, damage or loss. Any violation of these laws and regulations may subject the Internet information service provider to warnings, fines, confiscation of illegal gains, revocation of licenses, cancellation of filings, closedown of websites or even criminal liabilities. Pursuant to the Ninth Amendment to the Criminal Law issued by the SCNPC in August 2015 and becoming effective in November, 2015, any Internet service provider that fails to fulfill the obligations related to Internet information security administration as required by applicable laws and refuses to rectify upon orders, shall be subject to criminal penalty for the result of (i) any dissemination of illegal information in large scale; (ii) any severe effect due to the leakage of the customer’s information; (iii) any serious loss of criminal evidence; or (iv) other severe situation, and any individual or entity that (i) sells or provides personal information to others in a way violating the applicable law, or (ii) steals or illegally obtain any personal information, shall be subject to criminal penalty in severe situation. In addition, the Interpretations of the Supreme People’s Court and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate of the PRC on Several Issues Concerning the Application of Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Infringing Personal Information, issued in May 2017 and effective June 2017, clarified certain standards for the conviction and sentencing of the criminals in relation to personal information infringement. Further, the NPC promulgated a new National Security Law, effective July 2015, to replace the former National Security Law and covers various types of national security including technology security and information security. 35 Table of Contents In November 2019, the Secretariat of the Cyberspace Administration of China, the General Office of the MIIT, the General Office of the Ministry of Public Security and the SAMR jointly promulgated the Circular on Issuing the Methods for Identifying Unlawful Collection and Use of Personal Information of Applications, which defines actions that may be regarded as violating the Network Security Law and other personal information protection related regulations, including, among other things, failure to publicize the rules for collection and use of personal information, failure to expressly state the purpose, manner and scope of collecting and using personal information, collection and use of personal information without consent of users, provision of personal information to others without consent, and failure to provide the function of deleting or correcting personal information as required by law. On March 12, 2021, the aforesaid four departments jointly promulgated the Circular on Issuing the Provision on the Range of Personal Information Necessary for Common Types of Mobile Internet Application, which came into effect on May 1, 2021. This circular defines specific information that 39 types of mobile internet application (“APP(s)”), including mobile applications and programs on mobile applications, such as WeChat Mini Program, may collect for the basic functions of such APPs. On March 6, 2020, the SAMR and Standardization Administration of China, or SAC, jointly published the Information Security Technology - Personal Information Security Specification (GB/T 35273-2020), or the 2020 Specification, proposed by the National Information Security Standardization Technical Committee as an amendment to and replacement for the version published in November 2017 (GB/T 35273-2017). The 2020 Specification, which took effect on October 1, 2020, explains and reinforces the Cyber Security Law. Though the 2020 Specification is not a mandatory national standard but a recommended guideline, and it is not enforceable by law, the authority may use this standard to evaluate an entity’s compliance with China’s legal guidelines and regulations. The 2020 Specification outlines that “controllers” are those who collect personal information for providing a product or service. The “subject” is the individual or entity that provides the personal information to the controller. The 2020 Specification seeks to provide the subject with more autonomy in how and when they provide personal information to controllers. Although the 2020 Specification clarifies issues such as biometric data, multiple business functions, and explicit consent, it is still unclear to what extent the new standard will be enforced in China. Furthermore, on August 20, 2021, the SCNPC promulgated the Personal Information Protection Law, or the Information Protection Law, which became effective on November 1, 2021. The Information Protection Law stipulates that the Cyberspace Administration of China is responsible for coordinating the protection of personal information and the related supervision and administration. The Information Protection Law also expressly stipulates that those who process personal information in violation of regulations or fail to take necessary security measures when processing personal information will be ordered to make corrections by the authority responsible for personal information protection, and given a warning, with their illegal gains confiscated. If the violator refuses to make corrections, it shall be subject to a fine of not more than RMB1.0 million. The person in charge directly responsible and other persons directly responsible shall be imposed a fine of not less than RMB10,000 but not more than RMB100,000. In case of any severe illegal acts as stipulated in the Information Protection Law, the violator shall be ordered to make corrections by the authority responsible for personal information protection, have its illegal gains confiscated and be subject to a fine of not more than RMB50.0 million or no more than 5% of the turnover in the previous year, as well as a suspension of the relevant business, suspension for rectification, revocation of relevant business permit or business license by the relevant competent authorities. The person in charge directly responsible and other persons directly responsible shall be imposed a fine of not less than RMB100.0 thousand but not more than RMB1.0 million. The Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, or the Data Security Law, was passed by the SCNPC on June 10, 2021 and came into effect on September 1, 2021. The Data Security Law requires the data processor to establish and improve a whole-process data security management system, organize data security education and training, and take corresponding technical measures and other necessary measures to safeguard data security. In conducting data processing activities by using the Internet or any other information network, the data processor shall perform the above data security protection obligations on the basis of the hierarchical cybersecurity protection system. Any violation of the provisions and requirements under the Data Security Law may subject a data processor to rectifications, warnings, fines, suspension of the related business, revocation of licenses or even criminal liabilities. On July 7, 2022, the CAC promulgated the Measures on Security Assessment of Cross-border Data Transfer, or the Data Export Measures, which became effective on September 1, 2022. The Data Export Measures require that any data processor which processes or exports personal information exceeding certain volume threshold under such 36 Table of Contents measures shall apply for security assessment by the CAC before transferring any personal information abroad. The security assessment requirement also applies to any transfer of important data outside of China. In December 2022, the MIIT released the Administrative Measures for Data Security in the Field of Industry and Information Technology (for Trial Implementation), which came into effect on January 1, 2023. The Administrative Measures for Data Security in the Field of Industry and Information Technology (for Trial Implementation) requires the data processor in the field of industry and information technology to review data on a periodical basis, identify important data and core data in accordance with the relevant standards and specifications, and form its specific catalogue. The CAC has also issued the First Edition and the Second Edition of Guidelines for Application for Security Assessment of Outbound Data Transfer successively on August 31, 2022 and March 22, 2024, respectively, illustrating the specific requirements for declaration of the cross-border data security assessment, such as methods, processes and materials, and optimizes and simplifies the relevant materials that data processors need to submit. In June 2025, the CAC issued the Third Edition of Guidelines for Application for Security Assessment of Outbound Data Transfer, which optimizes and simplifies the relevant materials required to be submitted by data processors for the application for security assessment of outbound data transfer and specifies the conditions, procedures, and materials required for data processors to apply for an extension of the validity period of the security assessment results. On February 22, 2023, the CAC issued the Measures for the Standard Contract for the Outbound Transfer of Personal Information, or the Standard Contract Measures, which took effect on June 1, 2023. The Standard Contract Measures apply to the provision of personal information to overseas recipients through standard contract and set out detailed criteria relating to the formality and terms of such contracts. The Standard Contract Measures also require the personal information processor to file such contract with relevant authorities within 10 business days after the contract is effective. To regulate the application of the outboard transfer of personal information through standard contact, the CAC has promulgated the First Edition and the Second Edition of Guidelines for the Recordation of the Standard Contracts for the Outbound Transfer of Personal Information on May 30, 2023 and March 22, 2024. On March 16, 2023, the TC260 released the draft national standards entitled Information Security Technology - Certification Requirements for Cross-border Transmission of Personal Information, for public comments, which sets out the basic principles and requirements for the protection of the rights and interests of personal information subjects in the cross-border transmission of personal information, and outlines the standards for the third-party certification of companies engaged in the cross-border transfer. On March 13, 2025, the CAC and Ministry of Public Security jointly promulgated the Measures for the Security Management of the Application of Facial Recognition Technology, which came into effect on June 1, 2025, applies to the activities of applying facial recognition technology to process facial information within the territory of the PRC. According to the Measures for the Security Management of the Application of Facial Recognition Technology, facial recognition technology can only be used when there is a specific purpose and sufficient necessity, take the way that has the least impact on the rights and interests of individuals, and strict protection measures must be implemented On March 22, 2024, the CAC issued the Regulations on Promoting and Regulating the Cross-border Data Flow, which stipulates the obligations of data processors with cross-border transfer of personal information, such as notification, obtaining individual consent, and conducting personal information protection impact assessments in accordance with laws and administrative regulations, and also sets out several exemptions, including cross-border data transfer (i) for concluding or performing a contract to which an individual is a party, (ii) for the cross-border HR management purpose according to the applicable internal labor rules and a collective contract entered into with the employees , (iii) to safeguard an individual’s life, health or property in the event of an emergency, and (iv) if the handler is not classified as a critical information infrastructure operator, involving less than 100,000 people’s non-sensitive personal information from January 1 of the current year. On September 24, 2024, the Administrative Regulation of Network Data Security was released by the State Council and became effective on January 1, 2025, stipulates, among others, that a prior cybersecurity review is required for listing abroad of data processors which process over one million users’ personal information, and the listing of data processors in Hong Kong which affects or may affect national security. On September 24, 2024, the State Council published the Regulations on Network Data Security Management which came into force on January 1, 2025. This Regulation provides that the network data handlers shall be subject to national 37 Table of Contents security review if their network data handling activities affect or may affect national security, and it provides no further explanation or interpretation as to how to determine what constitutes “affecting national security”. In addition, the Regulations on Network Data Security Management requires network data handlers handling personal information involving over 10 million individuals to comply with certain regulations on important data handlers, including, among others, specifying the person in charge of network data security and the management organization for network data security, and conducting security background review of the person in charge of network data security and personnel in key positions and strengthen the training for the relevant personnel when controlling important data of specific type and scale specified by the relevant competent authority. On February 12, 2025, the Measures for the Administration of Personal Information Protection Compliance Audits was issued by the CAC and will become effective on May 1, 2025, which stipulates that companies that process personal information of subjects in China shall undergo regular compliance audits. On July 18, 2025, the CAC promulgated Announcement of the Submission of Information on Persons in Charge of Personal Information Protection, established a system of persons in charge of personal information protection and required such person to report certain information with the local cyberspace administration at the districted city level within specific timeframe. Regulations Relating to Overseas Offerings On July 6, 2021, the relevant PRC government authorities issued Opinions on Strictly Cracking Down Illegal Securities Activities in Accordance with the Law. These opinions emphasized the need to strengthen the administration over illegal securities activities and the supervision on overseas listings by China-based companies and proposed to take effective measures, such as promoting the construction of relevant regulatory systems to deal with the risks and incidents faced by China-based overseas-listed companies. On February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated the Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and relevant five guidelines, which became effective on March 31, 2023. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures comprehensively improve and reform the existing regulatory regime for overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities and regulates both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing of Chinese mainland domestic companies’ securities by adopting a filing-based regulatory regime. It provides, among others, that an overseas securities company that serves as a sponsor or lead underwriter for overseas securities offering and listing by domestic companies shall file with the CSRC within ten (10) working days after signing its first engagement agreement for such business, and submit to the CSRC, no later than January 31 each year, an annual report on its business activities in the previous year associated with overseas securities offering and listing by domestic companies. On the same day, the CSRC also held a press conference for the release of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and issued the Notice on Administration for the Filing of Overseas Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, which, among others, clarifies that (i) prior to the effective date of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, Chinese mainland domestic companies that have already completed overseas listing shall be regarded as “existing companies”, which are not required to fulfill filing procedure immediately but shall be required to complete the filing if such existing companies conduct refinancing in the future; and (ii) the CSRC will solicit opinions from relevant regulatory authorities and complete the filing of the overseas listing of companies with contractual arrangements which duly meet the compliance requirements, and support the development and growth of these companies by enabling them to utilize two markets and two kinds of resources. On February 24, 2023, the CSRC released the Provisions on Strengthening the Confidentiality and Archives Administration Related to the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Enterprises, or the Confidentiality and Archives Administration Provisions, which took effect on March 31, 2023. The Confidentiality and Archives Administration Provisions require, among others, that PRC domestic enterprises that seek to offer and list securities in overseas markets, either directly or indirectly, complete approval and filing procedures to competent authorities, if such PRC domestic enterprises or its overseas listing entities provide or publicly disclose documents or materials involving state secrets and work secrets of PRC government agencies to relevant securities companies, securities service institutions, overseas regulatory agencies and other entities and individuals. It further stipulates that providing or publicly disclosing documents and materials which may adversely affect national security or public interests, and 38 Table of Contents accounting files or copies shall be subject to corresponding procedures in accordance with relevant laws and regulations. Under the Confidentiality and Archives Administration Provisions, we may be required to complete relevant approval or filing procedures, or expend additional resources to comply with the Confidentiality and Archives Administration Provisions if we are recognized to fall within any of the foregoing circumstances. In addition, if the CSRC or other regulatory authorities later promulgate new rules or explanations requiring that we obtain their approvals or accomplish the required filing or other regulatory procedures for future capital-raising activities, we may be unable to obtain a waiver of such approval requirements, if and when procedures are established to obtain such a waiver. Regulations Relating to Anti-Monopoly According to the Anti-Monopoly Law of the People’s Republic of China, or the Anti-Monopoly Law, which was promulgated by the SCNPC on August 30, 2007, amended on June 24, 2022, and the 2022 revision became effective on August 1, 2022, the Anti-Monopoly Law applies to the monopolistic practices in domestic economic activities in China as well as the monopolistic practices outside China which have exclusion or restriction effects on domestic market competition. The monopolistic practices under the Anti-Monopoly Law include any monopoly agreement reached by any operators, abuse of market-dominating position by any operators and any concentration of operators which has an effect of eliminating or restricting competition. The agencies designated by the State Council are responsible for enforcement of the Anti-Monopoly Law. The anti-monopoly enforcement agencies of the State Council may, according to work requirements, delegate relevant anti-monopoly enforcement tasks to the corresponding agencies of the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and centrally-administered municipalities pursuant to the provisions of Anti-Monopoly Law. Operators who violate the provisions of the Anti-Monopoly Law will be ordered by the enforcement agencies to stop the illegal act, be imposed a fine or be subject to other restrictive measures. In order to prevent and curb the monopolistic conducts in the field of platform economy, the Anti-monopoly Commission of the State Council issued the Guidelines to Anti-Monopoly in the Field of Internet Platforms on February 7, 2021, which regulates the competition among Internet platforms. To determine the abuse of market dominance in the platform economy, first define the relevant market, analyze whether the operator has a dominant position in the relevant market, and then analyze whether it constitutes abuse of market dominance according to individual circumstances. On March 10, 2023, the SAMR issued the Provisions on Prohibiting the Abuse of Administrative Power to Eliminate and Restrict Competition, the Provisions on Anti-Monopoly Agreements, the Provisions on Prohibition of Abuse of Dominant Market Position, and the Regulations on the Review of Concentration of Undertakings, all of which came into effect on April 15, 2023. The SAMR amended the Provisions on Prohibiting the Abuse of Administrative Power to Eliminate and Restrict on December 18, 2025 and amended the Provisions on Anti-Monopoly Agreements on December 9, 2025, both of which came into effect on February 1, 2026. These Provisions are promulgated to implement the Anti-Monopoly Law of the PRC, and further strengthen the anti-monopoly legal system. PRC Regulations Relating to Foreign Exchange Regulations on Foreign Currency Exchange The core regulations governing foreign currency exchange in China are the Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, as amended in August 2008. Certain organizations in the PRC, including foreign invested enterprises, may purchase, sell and/or remit foreign currencies at certain banks authorized to conduct foreign exchange business upon providing valid commercial documents. However, approval of SAFE, is required for capital account transactions. In 2014, the SAFE decided to further reform the foreign exchange administration system in order to satisfy and facilitate the business and capital operations of foreign invested enterprises, and issued the Circular on the Relevant Issues Concerning the Launch of Reforming Trial of the Administration Model of the Settlement of Foreign Currency Capital of Foreign-Invested Enterprises in Certain Areas on July 4, 2014 or SAFE Circular 36. The SAFE Circular 36 suspends the application of the SAFE Circular 142 in certain areas and allows a foreign-invested enterprise registered in such areas to use the RMB capital converted from foreign currency registered capital for equity investments within the scope of business, which will be regarded as the reinvestment of foreign-invested enterprise. 39 Table of Contents On March 30, 2015, the SAFE issued the Circular on the Reforming of the Management Method of the Settlement of Foreign Currency Capital of Foreign-Invested Enterprises, or the SAFE Circular 19, which took effect on June 1, 2015, and replaced the SAFE Circular 142 and the SAFE Circular 36. According to the SAFE Circular 19, the foreign exchange capital of foreign-invested enterprises shall be subject to the Discretional Foreign Exchange Settlement. The Discretional Foreign Exchange Settlement refers to the foreign exchange capital in the capital account of a foreign-invested enterprise for which the rights and interests of monetary contribution has been confirmed by the local foreign exchange bureau (or the book-entry registration of monetary contribution by the banks) can be settled at the banks based on the actual operational needs of the foreign-invested enterprise. The proportion of Discretional Foreign Exchange Settlement of the foreign exchange capital of a foreign-invested enterprise is temporarily determined to be 100%. The Renminbi converted from the foreign exchange capital will be kept in a designated account and if a foreign-invested enterprise needs to make further payment from such account, it still needs to provide supporting documents and go through the review process with the banks. The SAFE issued the Circular on Reforming and Regulating the Policies for the Administration of Foreign Exchange Settlement under the Capital Account, or the SAFE Circular 16, in June 2016, which became effective simultaneously and was further revised in December, 2023. Pursuant to the SAFE Circular 16, enterprises registered in the PRC may also convert their foreign debts from foreign currency to Renminbi on a discretionary basis. The SAFE Circular 16 provides an integrated standard for conversion of foreign exchange under capital account items (including but not limited to foreign currency capital and foreign debts) on a discretionary basis which applies to all enterprises registered in the PRC. The SAFE Circular 16 reiterates the principle that Renminbi converted from foreign currency-denominated capital of a company may not be directly or indirectly used for purposes beyond its business scope or prohibited by PRC laws or regulations, while such converted Renminbi shall not be provided as loans to its non-affiliated entities. As the SAFE has not provided detailed guidelines with respect to its interpretation or implementations, it is uncertain how these rules will be interpreted and implemented. In January 2017, the SAFE promulgated the Circular on Further Promoting the Reform of Foreign Exchange Administration and Improving the Examination of Authenticity and Compliance, or the SAFE Circular 3, which took effect on the same day. The SAFE Circular 3 sets out various measures to tighten genuineness and compliance verification of cross-border transactions and cross-border capital flow, which include without limitation requiring banks to verify board resolutions, tax filing form, and audited financial statements before wiring foreign invested enterprises’ foreign exchange distribution above US$50,000, and strengthening genuineness and compliance verification of foreign direct investments. Our PRC subsidiaries’ distributions to their offshore parents are required to comply with the requirements as described above. Regulations on Foreign Exchange Registration of Offshore Investment by PRC Residents PRC residents or entities who have contributed legitimate domestic or offshore interests or assets to the special purpose vehicles, or the “SPVs”, but have yet to obtain the SAFE registration before the implementation of the Circular 37 shall register their ownership interests or control in such SPVs with the SAFE or its local branch. An amendment to the registration is required if there is a material change in the registered SPV, such as any change of basic information including change of such PRC resident’s name and operation term, increases or decreases in investment amounts, transfers or exchanges of shares, or mergers or divisions. Failure to comply with the registration procedures set forth in Circular 37, or making misrepresentation or failure to disclose controllers of foreign-invested enterprise that is established through round-trip investment, may result in restrictions on the foreign exchange activities of the relevant foreign-invested enterprises, including payment of dividends and other distributions, such as proceeds from any reduction in capital, share transfer or liquidation, to its offshore parent or affiliate, and the capital inflow from the offshore parent, and may also subject relevant PRC residents or entities to penalties under PRC foreign exchange administration regulations. In February 2015, the SAFE further promulgated the Circular of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Further Simplifying and Improving Policies for the Foreign Exchange Administration of Direct Investment, or the SAFE Circular 13, effective June 2015. This SAFE Circular 13 has amended the SAFE Circular 37 by requiring PRC residents or entities to register with qualified banks rather than the SAFE or its local branch in connection with their establishment or control of an offshore entity established for the purpose of overseas investment or financing. The 40 Table of Contents SAFE Circular 37 is applicable to our shareholders who are PRC residents and may be applicable to any offshore acquisitions that we make in the future. All of our shareholders who, to our knowledge, are subject to the above SAFE regulations have completed the necessary registrations with the local SAFE branch or qualified banks as required by the SAFE Circular 37. Mr. Tianhua Wu and some other individual shareholders who indirectly hold shares in our company and who are known to us as being PRC residents had completed the necessary registrations with the local SAFE branch or qualified banks as required by the SAFE Circular 37 in relation to their investment in our company. See “Item 3. Key Information— Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure – We may be subject to penalties, including restrictions on our ability to inject capital into our PRC subsidiaries, if our PRC resident shareholders or beneficial owners fail to comply with relevant PRC foreign exchange regulations.” PRC Regulations Relating to the Individual Foreign Exchange On December 25, 2006, the PBOC issued the Administrative Measures for Individual Foreign Exchange, or the PBOC Order 3, which took effect on February 1, 2007. In addition, on January 5, 2007, the SAFE promulgated the Circular of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Issuing the Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Measures for the Administration of Individual Foreign Exchange, or the SAFE 2007 Circular 1, which took effect on the same day with the PBOC Order 3. Pursuant to the provision of the PBOC Order 3 and the 2007 Circular 1, individual foreign exchange businesses in the PRC can be classified into domestic and overseas individual foreign exchange businesses as per transaction, and current accounts and capital accounts as per transaction property. Annual quota management shall be implemented for individual settlement of exchange and individual foreign exchange purchase within the territory of the PRC. The annual quota for domestic individual’s current accounts equivalent to US$50,000 (including US$50,000). In case the total amount of the foreign exchange remitted abroad from his/her foreign exchange savings account in a same day does not exceed the amount equivalent to US$50,000 (including US$50,000), he/she shall deal with it at a bank by presenting his/her valid identity certificate; if the total amount is more than the aforesaid amount, he/she shall handle it by presenting the authentic voucher under the current account indicating the trading volume. As for capital account, a domestic individual may purchase foreign exchange or remit abroad his/her self-owned foreign exchange upon the approval of the local foreign exchange department and shall conduct the corresponding formalities for the registration of foreign exchange for investing abroad. In March 2016, Beijing Rongke received an inquiring notice from the SAFE that required it to review and report the status of our customers’ account opening and fund transfers on our platform. Beijing Rongke made a written submission to the SAFE, which clarified that, among others, (i) at that time, Beijing Rongke was a related party to Tiger Holdings Group Limited (already de-registered), both of which did not participate in the process of the foreign currency purchase by our customers, and (ii) Beijing Rongke was a technology company and Tiger Holdings Group Limited was a registered financial service provider in New Zealand. See Item 3.D “Risk Factor-Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-Violations of the relevant SAFE rules and regulations may give rise to regulatory inquiries, investigations or other actions, which may disrupt our business and could materially and adversely impact our results of operations and financial condition.” We believe that we took necessary measures in response to such inquiry and as of the date of this report, we have not received any further similar inquiry or rectification requirement from the SAFE. However, we cannot assure you that the SAFE will take the same view as us and do not expect a formal notice from the SAFE to inform us whether Beijing Rongke had satisfied the requirements in the aforementioned notice. Regulations Relating to Intellectual Property Rights PRC Regulations for Copyright The Copyright Law of the PRC, promulgated in 1990 and amended in 2001 and 2010, or the Copyright Law, and its related implementing regulations, promulgated in 2002 and amended in 2013, are the principal laws and regulations governing the copyright related matters. On November 11, 2020, the SCNPC issued amendment to the Copyright Law, which became effective on June 1, 2021. The amended Copyright Law expands the scope of work protected by the copyright, the content of copyright, and the remedies for infringement of the copyright. Registration of copyright is voluntary, and it is administrated by the China Copyright Protection Center. 41 Table of Contents PRC Regulations for Patent Pursuant to the Patent Law of the PRC, or the Patent Law, as amended in 2008, after the grant of the patent right for an invention or utility model, except where otherwise provided for in the Patent Law, no entity or individual may, without the authorization of the patent owner, exploit the patent, that is, make, use, offer to sell, sell or import the patented product, or use the patented process, or use, offer to sell, sell or import any product which is a direct result of the use of the patented process, for production or business purposes. The Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Patent Law of the PRC, as amend in 2023, promulgated by the State Council provide for patentable inventions, utility models and designs, which must meet three conditions: novelty, inventiveness and practical applicability. After a patent right is granted for a design, no entity or individual shall, without the permission of the patent owner, exploit the patent, that is, for production or business purposes, manufacture, offer to sell, sell, or import any product containing the patented design. Once the infringement of patent is confirmed, the infringer shall, in accordance with the regulations, undertake to cease the infringement, take remedial action, and pay damages, etc. On October 17, 2020, the SCNPC issued amendment to the Patent Law, which became effective on June 1, 2021. The amended Patent Law expands the definition of appearance design, enhances the protection on appearance design, increases the amount of compensation for infringement, and extends the litigation period for infringement of patent. PRC Regulations for Trademark Pursuant to the Trademark Law of the PRC, as amended in 2013 and 2019, the right to exclusive use of a registered trademark shall be limited to trademarks which have been approved for registration and to goods for which the use of such trademark has been approved. The period of validity of a registered trademark shall be ten years, counted from the day the registration is approved. According to this law, using a trademark that is identical to or similar to a registered trademark in connection with the same or similar goods without the authorization of the owner of the registered trademark constitutes an infringement of the exclusive right to use a registered trademark. The infringer shall, in accordance with the regulations, undertake to cease the infringement, take remedial action, and pay damages, etc. See Item 3.D “Risk Factors-Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights.” PRC Regulations for Domain Name Pursuant to the Measures for the Administration of Internet Domain Names promulgated on August 24, 2017 and effective on November 1, 2017, the “domain name” shall refer to the character mark of hierarchical structure, which identifies and locates a computer on the Internet and corresponds to the Internet protocol address of that computer. The principle of “first come, first serve” is followed for the domain name registration service. After completing the domain name registration, the applicant becomes the holder of the domain name registered by the same. Any organization or individual may file an application for settlement with the domain names dispute resolution institution or file a lawsuit in the PRC courts in accordance with the PRC law, if such organization or individual consider the domain names registered or used by others infringe upon the legal rights and interests of the former. PRC Regulations Relating to Dividend Distribution The principal regulations governing the distribution of dividends paid by wholly foreign-owned enterprises include the Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprise Law issued in 1986 and most recently amended in 2016, and the Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprises issued in 1990 and most recently amended in 2014 , both of which have been superseded from January 1, 2020 by the FIL and FIL Implementation Rules, and the Company Law of the People’s Republic of China issued in 1999 and most recently amended in 2023. Under these regulations, wholly foreign-owned enterprises in China may pay dividends only out of their accumulated profits, if any, as determined in accordance with PRC accounting standards and regulations, provided that, a wholly foreign-owned enterprise in China shall firstly set aside at least 10% of its after-tax profit based on PRC accounting standards each year to its general reserves until its cumulative total reserve funds reaches 50% of its registered capital. These reserve funds, however, may not be distributed as cash dividends. 42 Table of Contents Certain Summary Financial Information Regarding the Company, Its Subsidiaries, and Consolidated VIEs Cash Flows Among the Company, Its Subsidiaries, and Consolidated VIEs The Group’s main revenues were mostly generated from our wholly owned subsidiaries in New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong and the United States for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025. Most of the consolidated VIEs and their subsidiaries operate business in the PRC and their main functions are to support our Licensed Entities. Certain of the costs generated by VIEs and their subsidiaries are covered by these Licensed Entities through inter-company transactions, and we expect that the Licensed Entities will cover a substantial majority of such costs in the future. In general, the holding company transfers funds from financing (including funds from its IPO, follow-on equity offerings, and offerings of convertible bonds, as applicable) to Licensed Entities in the form of capital injections or loans in order to support their business expansion. These Licensed Entities pay the consolidated VIEs and their subsidiaries periodically for the services rendered through inter-company transactions, pursuant to the terms of the contractual arrangements between them. The Group currently does not have any cash management policies specifically governing these transfers between VIE and subsidiaries. Instead, we are guided by the contractual arrangements to which we are a party and, to the extent permissible under those contractual arrangements, the discretion of our management. To date, we have not experienced difficulty in transferring cash to or from the holding company, the subsidiaries, the VIEs, and investors. However, there is no assurance that the PRC government will not regulate transfer of cash. To illustrate cash flows among the holding company, its subsidiaries, and consolidated VIEs by type, please refer to the following tables (all in US$ thousands): 43 Table of Contents •Cash flow between holding company and Subsidiaries: Fiscal Year ended December 31 2023 2024 2025 Net increase (decrease) of Loans to Subsidiaries (6,721 ) (13,087 ) 2,249 Capital Injections to Subsidiaries 11,300 104,495 4,064 •Cash flow between holding company and VIEs: Fiscal Year ended December 31 2023 2024 2025 Net increase of Loans to VIEs 69 547 18 •Cash flow between Subsidiaries and VIEs: Fiscal Year ended December 31 2023 2024 2025 Net (decrease) increase of Loans to VIEs (4,185 ) 1,320 8,362 Service Fees Paid to VIEs 23,158 19,439 26,251 Our subsidiaries and the consolidated VIEs did not declare or distribute any dividends or distributions for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025. Additionally, the holding company did not declare nor distribute any dividends or distribution for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025. Condensed Consolidated Financial Information relating to the VIEs As of and for the year ended December 31, 2025: Parent VIEs(1) Subsidiaries eliminating adjustments Consolidated(2) Current assets 135,040,164 65,528,679 8,140,220,050 (188,861,684 ) 8,151,927,209 Non-current assets 893,679,452 6,043,835 68,541,254 (893,660,713 ) 74,603,828 Total assets 1,028,719,616 71,572,514 8,208,761,304 (1,082,522,397 ) 8,226,531,037 Current liabilities 112,212,219 41,345,603 7,335,502,952 (189,601,802 ) 7,299,458,972 Non-current liabilities 51,000,001 721,561 5,171,760 — 56,893,322 Total liabilities 163,212,220 42,067,164 7,340,674,712 (189,601,802 ) 7,356,352,294 Total revenues 1,734,199 34,131,716 610,389,583 (34,190,581 ) 612,064,917 Net income (loss) 170,899,537 (8,597,251 ) 187,614,306 (178,434,971 ) 171,481,621 Net cash (used in) provided by operating activities (1,970,620 ) (2,242,085 ) 1,320,897,408 — 1,316,684,703 Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities (6,310,613 ) 6,359,743 (7,441,401 ) 1,643,517 (5,748,754 ) Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 100,895 1,163,072 (2,550,108 ) (1,643,517 ) (2,929,658 ) (1)The disclosed amounts of the VIEs were before elimination adjustments of intercompany transactions within the Group. See Note 1 to our audited consolidated financial statements for more information of the VIEs. (2)The disclosed amounts were agreed to or recalculated from our audited consolidated financial statements. 44 Table of Contents As of and for the year ended December 31, 2024: Parent VIEs(1) Subsidiaries eliminating adjustments Consolidated(2) Current assets 138,828,398 59,584,580 6,318,183,323 (188,649,814 ) 6,327,946,487 Non-current assets 676,351,458 8,219,993 55,047,276 (676,252,745 ) 63,365,982 Total assets 815,179,856 67,804,573 6,373,230,599 (864,902,559 ) 6,391,312,469 Current liabilities 440,445 28,658,433 5,721,789,201 (189,175,740 ) 5,561,712,339 Non-current liabilities 159,505,397 1,319,839 6,651,145 — 167,476,381 Total liabilities 159,945,842 29,978,272 5,728,440,346 (189,175,740 ) 5,729,188,720 Total revenues 2,506,026 28,432,186 388,828,707 (28,225,490 ) 391,541,429 Net income (loss) 60,727,920 (1,185,593 ) 63,340,633 (61,529,032 ) 61,353,928 Net cash provided by (used in) operating activities 2,065,750 (2,599,577 ) 828,512,079 — 827,978,252 Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities (91,954,896 ) 1,626,555 (10,893,902 ) 92,565,498 (8,656,745 ) Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 103,827,422 1,011,823 91,553,675 (92,565,498 ) 103,827,422 (1)The disclosed amounts of the VIEs were before elimination adjustments of intercompany transactions within the Group. See Note 1 to our audited consolidated financial statements for more information of the VIEs. (2)The disclosed amounts were agreed to or recalculated from our audited consolidated financial statements. For the year ended December 31, 2023: Parent VIEs(1) Subsidiaries eliminating adjustments Consolidated(2) Current assets 144,956,799 53,313,297 3,688,745,087 (197,043,081 ) 3,689,972,102 Non-current assets 502,099,724 11,399,140 44,595,861 (502,019,724 ) 56,075,001 Total assets 647,056,523 64,712,437 3,733,340,948 (699,062,805 ) 3,746,047,103 Current liabilities 1,192,454 26,976,594 3,256,754,764 (199,361,543 ) 3,085,562,269 Non-current liabilities 156,887,691 74,638 8,100,327 — 165,062,656 Total liabilities 158,080,145 27,051,232 3,264,855,091 (199,361,543 ) 3,250,624,925 Total revenues 2,921,100 24,775,979 266,800,356 (21,989,840 ) 272,507,595 Net income (loss) 32,563,525 (4,204,124 ) 38,343,738 (33,695,712 ) 33,007,427 Net cash used in operating activities (247,153 ) (205,895 ) (6,113,306 ) — (6,566,354 ) Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities (5,127,961 ) (6,169,149 ) (3,092,501 ) 6,639,051 (7,750,560 ) Net cash provided by (used in) financing activities 140,385 402,292 7,916,793 (6,639,051 ) 1,820,419 (1)The disclosed amounts of the VIEs were before elimination adjustments of intercompany transactions within the Group. See Note 1 to our audited consolidated financial statements for more information of the VIEs. (2)The disclosed amounts were agreed to or recalculated from our audited consolidated financial statements. 45 Table of Contents A. [Reserved] B. Capitalization and Indebtedness Not applicable. C. Reasons for the Offer and Use of Proceeds Not applicable. D. Risk Factors The following risks should be considered in conjunction with the information set forth above under the headings “Forward-Looking Statements” and “Item 3. Key Information” and below under “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects.” These risks may affect the Company’s operating results and, individually or in the aggregate, could cause its actual results to differ materially from past and anticipated future results. The following discussion of risks may contain forward-looking statements which are intended to be covered by the Safe Harbor Statement. Except as may be required by law, the Company undertakes no obligation to publicly update forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events, or otherwise. The Company invites you to consult any further related disclosures made by the Company from time to time in materials filed with or furnished to the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC. We are subject to multiple risks arising from our corporate structure, including our status as a holding company incorporated in the Cayman Islands that conducts a portion of our business through China-based VIEs with which we have only contractual relationships and in which we do not own an equity interest, and our operations in China, including potential actions or decisions by PRC or U.S. regulatory authorities restricting or affecting our business activities in the PRC or our access to U.S. capital markets. Certain of these risks, as well as other information relating to our corporate structure and operations in China, are highlighted above under “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure” and are summarized immediately below. These risks are incorporated by reference in this “Item 3. Key Information – D. Risk Factors.” We are subject to additional risks as a result of doing business in China, as described in more detail below under the heading “Risks Related to Doing Business in China.” Risks Related to Our Business and Industry We have a limited operating history and our historical financial, operating results and growth rates may not be indicative of future performance. We have a limited operating history. We launched our trading platform in August 2015 and have experienced rapid growth since then. Our total revenues increased from US$272.5 million in 2023 to US$391.5 million in 2024 and increased to US$612.1 million in 2025. We generated net income from US$33.0 million in 2023 to US$61.4 million in 2024 and increased to US$171.5 million in 2025, driven by executing internationalization strategy and building a resilient business model with healthier operating leverage. We expect our business expansion to continue as we grow our customer base and explore new market opportunities. However, due to our limited operating history, our historical growth rates may not be indicative of our future performance. We cannot assure you that we will grow at the same rate and succeed in introducing new services and products as we did in the past. Further, we may fail to adjust our business model to our development needs or the requirements of this ever-changing industry. You should consider our prospects in light of the risks and uncertainties that a fast-growing company with a limited operating history may be exposed to or encounter. We have incurred net losses in the past and may incur losses in the future. Although we generated net income from US$33.0 million in 2023 to US$61.4 million in 2024 and increased to US$171.5 million in 2025, but we incurred net losses in the past. We have made significant investments in research 46 Table of Contents and development, employee compensation and benefits, communication and market data, and marketing and branding to rapidly develop and expand our business. We expect to continue or increase such investments to establish and expand our business, and these investments may not result in an increase in revenue or positive cash inflow from operations in a timely manner, or at all. We may incur substantial losses for a number of reasons, including the lack of a larger customer base, as well as other risks discussed herein, and we may incur unforeseen expenses, or encounter difficulties, complications and delays in generating revenues or achieving profitability. We may also incur net losses in the future due to changes in the macroeconomic and regulatory environment, competitive dynamics and our inability to respond to these changes in a timely and effective manner. If we are unable to maintain profitability, we may have to reduce the scale of our operations, which may impact our business growth and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. Non-compliance with applicable laws in the jurisdictions in which we operate could harm our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations. The businesses of securities and other financial instruments are heavily regulated. Our brokerage business is subject to regulations in the United States, Singapore, New Zealand, Australia, Hong Kong and other jurisdictions in which we offer our products and services. Major regulatory bodies include, among others, in the United States, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, or FINRA, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, or the CFTC; in Singapore, the Monetary Authority of Singapore, or the MAS; in New Zealand, the Financial Markets Authority New Zealand, or the FMA, and the Financial Service Providers Register, or the FSPR; in Australia, the Australian Securities and Investments Commission, or ASIC; in Hong Kong, the Securities and Futures Commission or SFC. Domestic and foreign stock exchanges, other self-regulatory organizations and state and foreign securities commissions can censure, fine, issue cease-and-desist orders, suspend or expel a broker and its officers or employees. We are subject to routine regulatory oversight, examinations, and inquiries by regulatory authorities as part of the ordinary course of our business. These have in some instances led to, and might in the future lead to, enforcement proceedings as well as other actions and claims, resulting in injunctions, fines, penalties, and monetary settlements. For instance, FINRA informed us they had found the following instances of alleged non-compliance: (i) from January 2019 to November 2021, US Tiger Securities, Inc. (US Tiger Securities) failed to retain and review communications on an electronic messaging platform; and (ii) between November 2019 and March 2021 (with respect to US Tiger Securities) and from April 2021 to June 2023 (with respect to TradeUP Securities Inc. (TradeUP Securities)), both firms had deficiencies in the design of their anti-money laundering, or AML procedures as well as inadequate AML risk due diligence practices. In April 2025, US Tiger Securities and TradeUP Securities reached a final settlement with FINRA, accepting a censure and monetary fines of $250,000 and $700,000, respectively, which had been fully paid.The firms permanently discontinued use of the referenced messaging platform in November 2021 and implemented significant institutional and technical measures to strengthen their AML programs and enhance due diligence reviews for high-risk accounts. Additionally, TradeUP Securities engaged an independent third-party consultant to further review and monitor its compliance improvement progress. The third-party consultant recommended remedial measures addressing the deficiencies identified in the foregoing proceeding. TradeUP Securities submitted its remedy reply to FINRA in March 2026. TradeUP Securities has not received feedback from FINRA on this submission. Separately, in 2024, TradeUP Securities reached a resolution with FINRA regarding short interest positions and was fined $300,000 for failing to submit the short interest reports between 2021 and 2023. TradeUP Securities consented to the findings that it failed to report its short interest positions. It also implemented new procedures to ensure the accuracy and timely submission of the reporting and updated its Written Supervisory Procedures Checklist to address short interest reporting requirements. TradeUP Securities has been subject to other regulatory examinations by FINRA and the SEC. FINRA conducted a routine examination of TradeUP Securities for 2024 and issued an inspection report in 2025 identifying certain issues in TradeUP Securities' operations, business and compliance practices. TradeUP Securities submitted its responses to FINRA in April 2025 and has not received further feedback from FINRA so far. TradeUP Securities is currently in the process of its 2025 examination by FINRA. Separately, TradeUP Securities underwent an examination by the SEC 47 Table of Contents in 2025, and received an examination deficiency letter on in September 2025, which identified certain deficiencies relating to the firm' s operations, business practices, internal controls and supervision. TradeUP Securities submitted its response to the SEC in November 2025. To date, TradeUP Securities has not received further comments from the SEC on the matter. Our other subsidiary, TradeUP Crypto LLC, has been subject to examinations by state regulators, including Washington in 2025, and New Hampshire and Arizona jointly in 2026, and received examination memos from these regulators identifying certain operational and compliance related issues. TradeUP Crypto LLC submitted its responses to these state regulators and has not received any further comments from them to date. There can be no assurance that the remedial measures taken and our responses to the regulators can fully address the issues identified by them, or we will not be subject to any regulatory investigations, actions, or settlements in the future. These proceedings, inquiries, examinations, investigations, and other regulatory matters, and non-compliance with applicable laws or regulations could subject us or our affiliates, officers or employees to regulatory sanctions, including fines, penalties, and monetary settlements. These may require substantial management attention, result in additional compliance requirements, result in the relevant subsidiaries having their regulatory licenses or ability to conduct business in some jurisdictions suspended or revoked, increase regulatory scrutiny of our business, restrict our operations or require us to change our business practices, require changes to our products and services, delay planned product or service launches or development, require changes in personnel or management, or lead to the suspension or expulsion of our broker-dealer or other regulated subsidiaries or their officers or employees, which could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, results of operations and future prospects. Furthermore, securities brokerage firms are subject to numerous conflicts of interest or perceived conflicts of interest, over which federal and state regulators and self-regulatory organizations have increased their scrutiny. Addressing conflicts of interest is a complex and difficult undertaking. Our business and reputation could be harmed if we were to fail, or appear to fail, to address conflicts appropriately. In addition, we use the Internet and mobile network as a major distribution channel to provide services to our customers. A number of regulatory agencies have adopted regulations regarding customer privacy, system security and safeguarding practices and the use of customer information by service providers. Additional laws and regulations relating to the Internet and mobile network and safeguarding practices could be adopted in the future, including laws related to access and identity theft and regulations regarding the pricing, taxation, content and quality of products and services delivered over the Internet and mobile network. Complying with these laws and regulations may be expensive and time-consuming and could limit our ability to use the Internet and mobile network as a distribution channel, which would have a material adverse effect on our business and profitability. Our ability to comply with all applicable laws and rules is largely dependent on our internal and third party vendors’ system to ensure compliance, as well as our ability to attract and retain qualified compliance personnel. While we maintain systems and procedures designed to ensure that we comply with applicable laws and regulations, violations could still occur. Some legal and regulatory frameworks provide for the imposition of fines or penalties for non-compliance even though the non-compliance was inadvertent or unintentional and even though systems and procedures reasonably designed to prevent violations were in place at the time. There may be other negative consequences resulting from a finding of non-compliance, including restrictions on certain activities. Such a finding may also damage our reputation and our relationships with regulators and could restrict the ability of institutional investment managers to invest in our securities. We may not be able to obtain or maintain all necessary licenses, permits and approvals and to make all necessary registrations and filings for our activities in multiple jurisdictions and related to residents therein, especially in China or otherwise related to PRC residents. We operate in a heavily-regulated industry which requires various licenses, permits and approvals in different jurisdictions to conduct our businesses. Our customers include people who live in jurisdictions where we do not have licenses issued by the local regulatory bodies. It is possible that authorities in those jurisdictions may take the position that we are required to obtain licenses or otherwise comply with laws and regulations which we believe are not required or applicable to our business activities. If we fail to comply with the regulatory requirements, we may encounter the 48 Table of Contents risk of being disqualified for our existing businesses or being rejected for renewal of our qualifications upon expiry by the regulatory authorities as well as other penalties, fines or sanctions. In addition, in respect of any new business that we may contemplate, we may not be able to obtain the relevant approvals for developing such new business if we fail to comply with the relevant regulations and regulatory requirements. As a result, we may fail to develop new business as planned, or we may fall behind our competitors in such businesses. In addition, a significant portion of our technology research and development, management, supporting and other teams are based in China and a significant portion of our customers are Chinese speaking people including PRC citizens. Our PRC subsidiaries and the VIEs work closely with and provide significant supporting services for our trading platform outside of China as well as teams in New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States and Australia. As a result, compliance with PRC securities laws and regulations is of particular significance to our business. In July 2016, the CSRC posted an investor alert on its website warning investors that the CSRC has not approved any domestic or foreign institutions to provide services for domestic investors to participate in overseas securities trading, except through certain approved investment channels. In September 2016, we received a rectification notice issued by the Beijing branch of the CSRC requiring us, among other things, to refrain from providing support to unauthorized foreign service providers that conduct securities business in China. Following such notice, we took certain rectification measures to comply with the requirements set forth therein and provided written responses to such authority promptly]. We also communicate with the Beijing branch of the CSRC from time to time to ensure our business follows their requirements. We believe that we have taken necessary measures in response to this notice. On December 30, 2022, the CSRC issued the CSRC 1230 Notice, stating that we had carried out cross-border securities business for Chinese mainland investors without approval of the CSRC, constituting illegal operation of securities business under the Securities Law of the PRC. The CSRC 1230 Notice set out two principal rectification requirements: (i) we should stop all incremental illegal operations in Chinese mainland, such as soliciting and developing any new Chinese mainland customers or opening new securities accounts for them; and (ii) we should properly handle the existing accounts held by Chinese mainland investors by allowing them to continue their transactions through such accounts. At the same time, we are strictly prohibited from accepting any incremental funds that violate PRC foreign exchange regulations to such existing accounts. Furthermore, on February 15, 2023, the CSRC published its official reply in response to the public attention on the CSRC 1230 Notice, emphasizing its core requirements of “prohibiting incremental illegal business effectively and solving existing issues properly.” We have been actively cooperating with the CSRC to meet the rectification requirements set out under the CSRC 1230 Notice, including the removal of our APP “Tiger International” from the PRC application market starting from May 18, 2023. We cannot rule out the possibility that we may take the initiative to adopt additional rectification measures in the future to further curb incremental Chinese mainland domestic users and meet the requirements of the CSRC, and such additional measures may materially affect our business in the PRC. We are and may continue to be subject to examinations, investigations, inquiries, and other regulatory actions by the CSRC and other PRC regulatory authorities from time to time in our ordinary course of business. We may receive additional regulatory notices and examinations in the future in connection with our business operations in or related to the PRC. There can be no assurance that our existing or future rectification measures in response to regulatory actions will be deemed sufficient or satisfactory by the relevant regulatory authorities, or that we will not be required to take additional rectification measures that may have a material adverse impact on our business. If our rectifications are deemed to be inadequate, or if we fail to receive, maintain, or renew required permits and certificates in a timely manner or at all or otherwise fail to comply with legal or regulatory requirements, we may be subject to fines, confiscation of gains derived from non-compliant activities, suspension of such activities, or claims for compensation of any economic loss suffered by our customers or other relevant parties. Furthermore, new laws and regulations in connection with our business activities may be adopted from time to time. While we will use best efforts to comply with applicable current and future PRC laws and regulations, there may be uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of such laws and regulations, and the PRC government or other governmental authorities may ultimately take a view that is different from ours. If we are found to be non-compliant with applicable PRC laws and regulations, or if any regulatory authority imposes further regulatory actions, sanctions, or penalties on us, our reputation, business, financial condition, and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. 49 Table of Contents If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal controls, we may be unable to accurately or timely report our results of operations or prevent fraud, and investor confidence and the market price of the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected. A material weakness is a deficiency, or combination of deficiencies, in internal controls such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of our annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. While, based on our management’s assessment on the performance of the internal controls, we determined that no material weakness existed as of December 31, 2025. In the future we may determine that we have additional material weaknesses, or our independent registered public accounting firm may disagree with our management assessment of the effectiveness of our internal controls. We are subject to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, or Section 404, requires that we include a report from management on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting in our annual report on Form 20-F. In addition, our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. Our management has concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2025. See “Item 15. Controls and Procedures—Management’s Annual Report on Internal Control over Financial Reporting.” However, if we fail to maintain the adequacy of our internal control over financial reporting, as these standards are modified, supplemented or amended from time to time, including the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the rules and regulations of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) (including AS 2201, An Audit of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting That Is Integrated with An Audit of Financial Statements), the COSO Internal Control - Integrated Framework, and any other applicable regulatory or accounting standards related to internal control over financial reporting, we may not be able to conclude on an ongoing basis that we have effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404 and our independent registered public accounting firm may not be able to conclude that we have effective internal control over financial reporting at a reasonable assurance level. If we fail to achieve and maintain an effective internal control environment, we could suffer material misstatements in our financial statements and fail to meet our reporting obligations, which would likely cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information. This could in turn limit our access to capital markets, harm our results of operations, and lead to a decline in the trading price of the ADSs. Additionally, ineffective internal control over financial reporting could expose us to increased risk of fraud or misuse of corporate assets and subject us to potential delisting from the stock exchange on which we list, regulatory investigations and civil or criminal sanctions. We may also be required to restate our financial statements for prior periods. Furthermore, we have incurred and anticipate that we will continue to incur considerable costs, management time and other resources in an effort to comply with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and other requirements. Violations of the relevant SAFE rules and regulations may give rise to regulatory inquiries, investigations or other actions, which may disrupt our business and could materially and adversely impact our results of operations and financial condition. A significant portion of our customers are PRC citizens resident in China and are therefore subject to the restrictions imposed by the applicable rules and regulations promulgated by the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or the SAFE, regarding the conversion of Renminbi into foreign currencies and the remittance and use of such funds outside China. Under the current PRC foreign exchange regulations, each PRC citizen is permitted to convert up to an aggregate of US$50,000 equivalent Renminbi each year for appropriate personal use. Such appropriate use does not include direct investment into secondary stock markets. PRC citizens who intend to convert U.S. dollars exceeding such quota are required to go through additional application and review procedures with the relevant commercial banks designated by the SAFE. Despite our emphasis on our customers’ compliance with the relevant rules and regulations in the agreements with customers on our platform, we cannot assure you that our customers will follow the rules and regulations and the provisions in our agreements at all times. Any misbehavior or violation of our customers of applicable laws and regulations could lead to regulatory inquiries and investigations that involve us, which may affect our prospects. In connection with our customers’ transfer of funds, in March 2016, we received a notice from the SAFE requiring us to review and report situations regarding our customers’ account opening and fund transfers on our platform. 50 Table of Contents Thereafter, the regulator conducted an onsite inspection collecting information on our customers’ compliance with the relevant SAFE rules and regulations since the inception of our business. We submitted the relevant materials as requested by the regulator by the end of March 2016. In December 2016, the SAFE made another visit to our company and we submitted some additional documents per its requirements. As of the date of this report, we have not received any further inquiries or notices from the SAFE regulators. For more details of the notice aforementioned and our measures in response thereto, please see “Item 3. Key Information – Description of Certain PRC Regulations Affecting Our Business.” Since the PRC authorities and the commercial banks designated by the SAFE to conduct foreign exchange services have significant amount of discretion in interpreting, implementing and enforcing the relevant foreign exchange rules and regulations, and for many other factors that are beyond our control and anticipation, we may face more severe consequences, including but not limited to being asked to take additional and burdensome measures to monitor the source and use of the foreign currency funds in the accounts of our customers or suspend our operations pending an investigation or indefinitely. As a result, our business, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected. Any future change in the regulatory and legal regime for the securities brokerage industry may have a significant impact on our business model. Firms in the securities brokerage industry have been subject to an increasingly regulated environment over recent years, and penalties and fines sought by regulatory authorities have also increased. This regulatory and enforcement environment has created uncertainties with respect to various types of products and services that historically had been offered by us and that were generally believed to be permissible and appropriate. Our model of operation and profitability may be directly affected by legislative changes in rules promulgated by government agencies and self-regulatory organizations in various jurisdictions that oversee our businesses, and changes in the interpretation or enforcement of existing laws and rules, such as the potential imposition of transaction taxes. In addition, to continue to operate and expand our services internationally, we may have to comply with the regulatory controls of each jurisdiction where we conduct, or intend to conduct business, the requirements of which may not be clearly defined. The varying compliance requirements of these different regulatory jurisdictions, which are often unclear, may limit our ability to continue existing international operations and further expand our business internationally. For example, we face significant legal uncertainties as to whether the CSRC would require us to get certain licenses or permits relating to our activities in China given the fact that most of our technology, customer services and administrative teams are based in China, or whether the CSRC would view our current or previous business operations in China as non-compliant with the relevant regulatory regime. See Item 3.D “Risk Factors - Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We may not be able to obtain or maintain all necessary licenses, permits and approvals and to make all necessary registrations and filings for our activities in multiple jurisdictions and related to residents therein, especially in China or otherwise related to PRC residents.” We could be subject to disciplinary or other actions in the future due to claimed or deemed non-compliant, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations as further described under “-Non-compliance with applicable laws in certain jurisdictions could harm our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.” Accusations or claims against us may adversely affect our business operations and reputation. We have been involved in cases or claims such as infringements upon reputation and intellectual property rights allegedly conducted by users on our platform, and portraiture right infringements based on the fact that we list some of our shareholders on our website. For other examples, please see Item 3.D “Risk Factors - Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We may not be able to obtain or maintain all necessary licenses, permits and approvals and to make all necessary registrations and filings for our activities in multiple jurisdictions and related to residents therein, especially in China or otherwise related to PRC residents.” Although the records of investigations or accusations did not necessarily lead to sanctions against us in a direct way, these historical records might be accessed online or offline, which could adversely affect our business operations and reputation, and thus further affect our progress if we decide to enter into new markets in these jurisdictions. 51 Table of Contents A portion of our business currently relies mostly on collaboration with Interactive Brokers. Our business will be adversely impacted if we are unable to maintain our relationship with Interactive Brokers. We currently rely on Interactive Brokers to execute, settle and clear a portion of the trades of the U.S. and Hong Kong stocks and other financial instruments, and to comply with certain federal, state and other laws, as discussed more fully in Item 4.B “Business Overview-Our Core Products and Services-Brokerage Services.” For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, 16.6%, 10.6% and 6.6% of our total net revenues were executed and cleared by Interactive Brokers. For consolidated accounts, the information of which is not fully disclosed to Interactive Brokers, we receive commission fees and direct a pre-determined portion to Interactive Brokers. For fully disclosed accounts, every time Interactive Brokers executes and clears a trade, it collects the commissions, deducts its pre-determined portion and returns the rest of the commission fees to us. Customers can also trade on margin and short sell securities on our trading platform. We generate interest income arising from margin financing offered by us to consolidated account customers and earn financing service fees related to the margin financing provided by Interactive Brokers to fully disclosed account customers. In the event that our relationship with Interactive Brokers deteriorates, or if Interactive Brokers were to suspend, limit, or cease its operations, we may need to enter into alternative arrangements with different clearing agents or further increase our self-clearing of trades. To date, we have not frequently used any other backup clearing agents for execution and clearing services to the extent we use Interactive Brokers. Our relationships with such clearing agents are subject to a number of risks and may be subject to change or termination with appropriate notice. Our relationship with Interactive Brokers has historically been critical to our business and remains important to our business. If we need to enter into alternative arrangements with a different clearing agent to replace our existing arrangements, we may not be able to negotiate a favorable alternative arrangement. Transitioning to a new clearing agent or increasing self-clearing through TradeUP Securities are time-consuming and may affect the user experience or, if our platform becomes inoperable, may result in our inability to facilitate trades through our platform. We would also need to comply with applicable laws regarding execution and clearing services, which would be costly and time-consuming. If we are unsuccessful in maintaining our relationships with Interactive Brokers, our operating cost and expenses might increase, which may materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. Self-clearing exposes us to significant operational, liquidity, financing and regulatory risks. We began self-clearing a portion of the trades of the U.S. stocks and other financial instruments in the third quarter of 2019, following our acquisition of TradeUP Securities. Nowadays, we self-clear a majority of U.S. and Hong Kong cash equities trades and we expect to increase further in the future the proportion of such trades that we self-clear. Self-clearing requires us to finance transactions and maintain margin deposits at clearing organizations. Clearing and execution services include the confirmation, receipt, settlement, delivery and record-keeping functions involved in securities transactions. Clearing brokers also assume direct responsibility for the possession or control of client securities and other assets and the clearing of client securities transactions. However, clearing brokers also must rely on third-party clearing organizations, such as the Depositary Trust Clearing Corporation and its subsidiaries in the United States, in settling client securities transactions. Clearing brokers are also responsible for protecting client assets and complying with relevant customer protecting regulations. Clearing securities firms, such as TradeUP Securities, are subject to substantially more regulatory oversight and examination than introducing brokers who rely on others to perform clearing functions. Errors in performing clearing functions, including clerical and other errors related to the handling of funds and securities held by us on behalf of clients, could lead to regulatory fines and civil penalties as well as losses and liability in related legal proceedings brought by clients and others. We may be required to finance our clients’ unsettled positions and we could be held financially liable for the defaults of our clients. Although these obligations are collateralized, we are subject to market risk in the liquidation of customer collateral to satisfy those obligations. Default by our clients may also give rise to our incurring penalties imposed by execution venues, regulatory authorities and clearing and settlement organizations. Regulatory agencies have required clearing and settlement organizations to increase the level of margin deposit requirements and they may continue to do so in the future. Growth in trading activity may lead to higher regulatory 52 Table of Contents capital requirements. We cannot assure you that these capital requirements will be sufficient to protect market participants from a default or that we will not be adversely affected in the event of a significant default. As a result, self-clearing exposes our business to operational risks, including business and technology disruption; operational inefficiencies; liquidity, financing and regulatory risks; and potentially increased expenses. We may encounter difficulties with self-clearing that lead to operating inefficiencies, technology issues, dissatisfaction amongst our client base, disruption in the infrastructure that supports the business, inadequate liquidity, increased margin requirements with clearing organizations and third-party settlement agents who provide financing with respect to transactions, reductions in available borrowing capacity and financial loss. Any such delay, disruption, expense or failure could adversely affect our ability to effect transactions and manage our exposure to risk. Moreover, any of these events could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and operating results. If we are unable to develop a diverse customer base and offer new and innovative products and services, our business, financial condition and results of operation may be negatively impacted. Historically, we generated a significant portion of revenues through the provision of online brokerage services including commissions for execution of trades and interest income or financing service fees arising from or related to margin financing for our customers. Key success factors of the online brokerage industry include expansion of products and services that add value to customers, acquisition of licenses in different jurisdictions and enhancement of user experience. We intend to continue strengthening the innovation, security, efficiency and effectiveness of our brokerage services, including our user-friendly interface, comprehensive functionalities and customer service capabilities and to expand our service offerings to institutional customers and increase the proportion of revenues generated from them. We have developed customized application programming interface, or API, for our institutional customers. As institutional customers tend to trade more consistently and demand a wider spectrum of services as compared to individual investors, we strive to foster long-term partnerships with them and to grow our revenue streams substantially as a result of greater number of institutional customers utilizing our trading platform and services. We cannot guarantee that we will be successful in expanding our customer base, and if we are unable to do so, our growth prospects, financial condition and results of operation may be adversely affected. We also plan to continue integrating value-added services, including asset management and wealth management services as well as institutional and corporate services to improve popularity and enhance customer stickiness and diversify revenue streams. As we provide a wider array of services, including ESOP, asset management and wealth management services, we expect to attract more institutional and corporate customers to engage us to provide such services and in turn generate more revenues. We expect our operating cost and expenses to continue to increase. If we are unable to develop products and services that attract sufficient customers, our business, financial condition and results of operation may be adversely affected. If we are unable to operate in a cost-effective manner, our results of operation may be negatively impacted. Our ability to control costs and expenses relating to our operations affects our profitability. With the expansion of our business, we expect our operating cost and expenses to continue to increase, including employee compensation and benefits, marketing and branding and other costs and expenses. The salary level in the fintech industry in and outside China has generally increased in recent years, and we offer competitive wages and other benefits to recruit and retain quality professionals. Employee compensation and benefits (excluding share-based compensation) increased from US$90.6 million in 2023 to US$112.6 million in 2024 and US$151.6 million in 2025. In addition, we utilize various marketing tools, including branding on online and traditional channels, collaborating with business partners, hosting branding events and circulating branding materials, to attract new customers, retain our existing customers and increase our revenues. Our marketing and branding expenses were US$20.9 million, US$28.5 million and US$49.5 million in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively, accounting for 7.7%, 7.3% and 8.1%, respectively, of our total revenues for the same periods. If we are unable to operate in a cost-effective manner, our results of operations may be negatively impacted. 53 Table of Contents We rely on a number of external service providers for certain key market information and data, technology, processing and supporting functions. We rely on a number of external service providers for certain key market information and data, technology, processing and supporting functions. These include the services of market makers, exchanges and Interactive Brokers and other clearing agents and clearinghouses to execute and settle customer orders. Furthermore, external content providers provide us with financial information, market news, charts, option and stock quotes and other fundamental data that we offer to customers. These service providers face technical, operational and security risks of their own. Any significant failures by them, including improper use or disclosure of our confidential customer, employee or company information, could interrupt our business, cause us to incur losses and harm our reputation. Particularly, we have contracted with Nasdaq, New York Stock Exchange and a few other institutions to allow our customers to access real-time market information data, which are essential for our customers to make their investment decisions and take actions. Any failure of such information providers to update or deliver the data in a timely manner as provided in the agreements could lead to potential losses of our customers, which will in turn affect our business operations and reputation. We cannot assure that the external service providers will be able to continue to provide these services to meet our current needs in an efficient and cost-effective manner, or that they will be able to adequately expand their services to meet our needs in the future. Some external service providers which have assets that are important to the services they provide us are located outside the United States, and their ability to provide these services is subject to risks from unfavorable political, economic, legal or other developments, such as social or political instability, changes in governmental policies or changes in the applicable laws and regulations. An interruption in or the cessation of service by any external service provider as a result of system failures, capacity constraints, financial constraints or problems, unanticipated trading market closures or for any other reason and our inability to make alternative arrangements in a smooth and timely manner, if at all, could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. Further, disputes might arise out of or in connection with the agreements regarding our or the service providers’ performance of the obligations thereunder. To the extent that any service provider disagrees with us on the quality of the products or services, terms and conditions of the payment or other provisions of such agreements, we may face claims, disputes, litigations or other proceedings initiated by such service provider against us. We may incur substantial expenses and require significant attention of management in defending against these claims, regardless of their merit. We could also face damages to our reputation as a result of such claims, and our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. We are dependent upon the cooperation agreements with a few third party platforms for a portion of our revenues and customers. We enter into revenue-sharing arrangements with third party platforms, pursuant to which those platforms allow us to interface with their own customers and receive a percentage of the fees paid by those customers who have transacted through our platform. Our agreements with those platforms typically have a term of one to three years. There can be no assurance that our agreements with them will be extended or renewed after their respective expiration or that we will be able to extend or renew such agreements on terms and conditions favorable to us. If any of the important platforms breaches its obligations under any of these agreements or refuses to extend or renew it when the term expires, we may lose all or a portion of the customer base of its network or we may not be able to continue to acquire new customers through that platform. Any termination or deterioration of our relationship with an important platform, and any extension or renewal after the respective initial term of these agreements on terms and conditions less favorable to us would have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may pursue acquisitions or joint ventures that could present unforeseen integration obstacles, incur unpredicted costs or may not enhance our business as we expected. We have made a few selective acquisitions to expand our business into new areas and jurisdictions. We may in the future continue to pursue acquisitions and joint ventures as part of our growth strategy. Any future acquisition or joint venture may result in exposure to potential liabilities of the acquired companies, significant transaction costs and 54 Table of Contents present new risks associated with entering additional markets or offering new products and integrating the acquired companies or newly established joint ventures. Potential liabilities may arise from deficiencies in due diligence findings and deficient past track record results. We may also become subject to new, different, and potentially more complex or onerous regulatory requirements as our business, services, and geographic footprint expand. For instance, in November 2018, Tiger Fintech Holdings completed the acquisition of 100% of the equity interests in US Tiger Securities, Inc. In July 2019, Tiger Fintech Holdings completed its acquisition of 100% of the equity of TradeUP Securities, a U.S. online broker service platform that focuses on empowering self-directed investors with necessary tools to manage their portfolios. In October 2021, Up Fintech International Limited completed its acquisition of 100% of the equity of Ocean Joy Holdings Limited (“Ocean Joy”), and its sole subsidiary Tiger Brokers (HK) Global Limited (“Tiger Brokers HK”, formerly known as Ocean Joy Securities Limited), a licensed corporation of the Securities and Futures Commission of Hong Kong (“SFC”) holding Type 1 (“Dealing in Securities”), Type 2 (“Dealing in Futures Contracts”), Type 4 (“Advising on Securities”), Type 5 (“Advising on Futures Contracts”) and Type 9 (“Asset Management”) licenses. Such acquisitions made to expand our business, facilities and workforce will also involve costs and risks, such as potential labor disputes and compliance costs and risks. There can be no assurance that we will be able to grow our acquired or invested businesses, or realize returns, benefits of synergies and growth opportunities we expect in connection with such acquisitions. Moreover, we may not have sufficient management, financial and other resources to integrate companies we acquire or to successfully operate joint ventures and we may be unable to profitably operate our expanded company structure. Additionally, any new business that we may acquire or joint ventures we may form, once integrated with our existing operations, may not produce expected or intended results. Our business may be harmed by global events beyond our control, including overall slowdowns in securities trading. Our revenues and profitability depend on trading volume and are prone to significant and unpredictable fluctuations. Like other brokerage and financial services firms, our business and profitability are directly affected by elements that are beyond our control, such as economic and political conditions, broad trends in business and finance, changes in volume of securities transactions, changes in the markets in which such transactions occur and changes in how such transactions are processed. A weakness in equity markets, such as a slowdown causing reduction in trading volume in the United States and Hong Kong stocks and other financial instruments, has historically resulted in reduced transaction revenues and would have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. For example, the highly volatile market conditions in 2023 and 2025 relating to continual geopolitical instability and increase in interest rates across the global caused some of our clients to experience financial losses. If we are unable to collect fees from or recover margin loans made to our clients, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. Additionally, certain market participants may be overleveraged, which may exacerbate the effects of market volatility. In case of sudden, large price movements, such market participants are more likely to be unable to meet their obligations to brokers who, in turn, may not be able to meet their obligations to their counterparties. As a result, the financial system or a portion thereof could collapse, and the impact of such an event could be catastrophic to our business. Unrest and conflicts in the Middle East, Europe, and Africa have become a significant source of disruption and material risk in the global financial market, including the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war and the recurrent Israel-Hamas conflict, the conflicts involving Ukraine, Syria, and North Korea, as well as the United States’ recent military operation against Iran and Venezuela and potential ones against Mexico and Greenland. These conflicts and any future conflicts, including potential and threatened conflicts, introduce high financial market volatility, primarily through surging energy prices, supply chain disruptions, and increased inflationary pressures. Our revenues depend substantially on our customers’ trading volume, which is influenced by the general trading activities in the securities trading market. Securities trading faces competition from other investment products, such as wealth management products and peer-to-peer lending. These alternative investment products may divert investors from or reduce their activity levels in securities trading, which may adversely affect our trading volume, revenues and business. In addition, general trading activities in our industry are also directly affected by factors such as economic and political conditions, macro trends in business and finance, investors’ interest level in securities trading and legislative and 55 Table of Contents regulatory changes. Any of these factors or other factors may reduce the trading activity level in securities trading industry and adversely affect our business and results of operations and cash flows. Events in global financial markets in recent years resulted in substantial market volatility and increased customer trading volume. However, any sustained downturn in general economic conditions or global equity markets could result in reduced customer trading volume and revenues. Severe market fluctuations or weak economic conditions could reduce our trading volume and revenues and have a material adverse effect on our profitability. As a result, period to period comparisons of our revenues and operating results may not be meaningful, and future revenues and profitability may be subject to significant fluctuations or declines. Attrition of customer accounts and failure to attract new accounts could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Our customer base mainly comprises of individual customers. Although we offer services designed to educate, support and retain our customers, our efforts to attract new customers or reduce the attrition rate of our existing customers may not be successful. The number of customers on our trading platform depends on the usability and popularity of our trading platform as well as the industry outlook of the online brokerage business. Our customers’ trading volume is directly influenced by the demand for trading by individual investors, which is affected by the general social and economic conditions, as well as individual investors’ preference for the choice of investment products. In addition, customers’ trading activities are influenced by the trading price volatility of the relevant products. Additionally, we have a large and highly engaged customer base, which drives our revenue growth. Our ability to continue to effectively maintain and expand our customer base will affect the growth of our business and our revenues going forward. Our total customer accounts increased from 2,195,705 as of December 31, 2023 to 2,499,304 as of December 31, 2024 and 2,657,544 as of December 31, 2025. Our revenues increased from US$272.5 million in 2023 to US$391.5 million in 2024, and increased to US$612.1 million in 2025 as we continue to execute on our internationalization strategy and build a resilient business model with healthier operating leverage. Furthermore, the level of customer engagement affects our commissions, interest income and financing service fees. Total account balance increased from US$30.6 billion as of December 31, 2023 to US$41.7 billion as of December 31, 2024, and increased to US$60.8 billion as of December 31, 2025. Our ability to expand our customer base, including expansion into markets including the United States, Australia, Hong Kong and Singapore, as well as maintain and enhance customer engagement, depends on, among other things, our ability to continuously provide comprehensive and user-friendly online trading experience. If we are unable to maintain or increase our customer retention rates or generate new customers in a cost-effective manner, our business, financial condition and results of operations would likely be adversely affected. Historically, we incurred US$20.9 million, US$28.5 million and US$49.5 million in marketing and branding expenses, representing 7.7%, 7.3%, and 8.1% of our total revenues in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. Although we have spent significant financial resources on marketing expenses and plan to continue doing so, these efforts may not be cost-effective to attract new customers. We cannot assure you that we will be able to maintain or grow our customer base in a cost-effective way. If we are unable to maintain high quality services, or maintain or reduce our service fee rate, or introduce new products and services, we may fail to attract new customers or lose our existing customers, which could adversely affect our growth and profitability. If we are unable to earn commissions for brokerage services and interest income or financing service fees for margin financing, our results of operation may be negatively impacted. We charge commission fees for the brokerage services we deliver to our customers. We also earn interest income or financing service fees arising from or related to margin financing provided by ourselves or third parties to our customers for trading activities. Our ability to earn commission fees, interest income or financing service fees largely depends on the number of customers on our trading platform, their trading volume and our commission fee rate. From 2023 to 2025, the average rate of commissions over trading volume, which is the ratio of the total commissions to the total trading volume in the same period, declined from 0.0315% to 0.0260%. This decline was primarily due to the lower average fee rate attributable to industry competition. If our customers’ account balances, trading volume or commission fee rate decline in the future, we will likely earn less in commissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations. Additionally, our ability to extend margin financing to our customers largely depends on the amount of funds we can allocate internally and obtain from external sources, such as potential borrowings on revolving credit facilities. In connection with the significant growth in our consolidated account customers, we expect to generate more interest income from margin financing offered to our customers. If we are 56 Table of Contents unable to extend margin financing and earn commission fees, interest income or financing service fees, or if there is a reduction in our fee rates, our results of operations may be adversely affected. Additionally, market volatility or declines may cause our clients to experience losses, which may result in a higher rate of client defaults. If we are unable to recover funds due from our clients, our results of operations and financial condition will be adversely affected. Our current level of commission and fee rates may decline in the future. Any material reduction in our commission or fee rates could reduce our profitability. We derive a significant portion of our revenues from commissions and fees paid by our clients for trading securities through our platform. Commission fees generated from our brokerage services accounted for US$92.6 million, US$159.0 million and US$266.8 million in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. We may experience pressure on our commission or fee rates as a result of competition we face in the online brokerage service industry. Some of our competitors offer a broader range of services to a larger client base and enjoy higher trading volumes than we do. Consequently, our competitors may be able and willing to offer trading services at lower commission or fee rates than we currently offer or may be able to offer. For example, some brokers in Hong Kong and the United States offer zero commission fees or similar policies to attract retail securities investors. As a result of this pricing competition, we could lose both market share and revenues. We from time to time award discounted or even zero commission fees to new or existing customers as part of our marketing scheme, thus attracting more customers and boosting customer stickiness. We believe that any downward pressure on commission or fee rates would likely continue and intensify as we continue to develop our business and gain recognition in our markets. A decline in our commission or fee rates could lower our revenues, which would adversely affect our profitability. In addition, our competitors may offer other financial incentives such as rebates or discounts in order to induce trading in their systems rather than in ours. If our commission or fee rate decreases significantly, our operating and financial results may be materially and adversely affected. Failure to comply with regulatory capital requirements set by local securities regulatory authorities and agencies could materially and negatively affect our financial condition and results of operations. Some of our subsidiaries are required to comply with regulatory capital requirements. For example, our subsidiary US Tiger Securities, Inc. is a registered broker-dealer in the United States. Wealthn LLC, another of our subsidiaries, is a registered investment advisor in the United States and a member of the National Futures Association, or the NFA. Our subsidiary Tiger Brokers HK is currently registered in HK to provide brokerage services. Stringent rules with respect to the maintenance of specific levels of net capital by securities broker-dealers or investment advisory firms have been adopted by many regulatory authorities and agencies such as the SEC, FINRA, the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission, or the CFTC, and the NFA. US Tiger Securities, Inc. must comply with the SEC’s net capital requirements, by which its current financial health is measured by assessing its liquidity against the risks where it has exposure. At all times US Tiger Securities, Inc. must maintain its net capital requirements, at a level equal to, or greater than, the prescribed minimum capital. US Tiger Securities, Inc. must maintain a minimum net capital requirement in compliance with the SEC Rule 15c3-1 as well as comply with the SEC Rule 17a-11 and the “early warning levels” for net capital requirements contained therein. If we fail to comply with HK, U.S. and Singapore capital adequacy requirements, we will be forced to suspend our business operations until such time as we have injected enough capital to comply with applicable rules and regulations. Additionally, the regulators could suspend or revoke our registration, expel us from membership, or impose censures, fines or other sanctions. If the net capital requirements are changed or expanded, or if there is an unusually large charge against net capital, then our operations that require capital could be limited, and we may not be able to pay dividends. A large operating loss or charge against net capital could have a material adverse effect on our ability to maintain or expand our business. We are subject to risks and uncertainties associated with the evolving AI regulations, potential infringement claims and increasing costs for regulatory compliance. 57 Table of Contents We are incorporating AI into various parts of our service offerings. For instance, we have launched TigerGPT in 2023 and updated it to TigerAI in 2024. TigerAI is an AI investment assistant aimed at providing intelligent decision-making support for investors developed by Tiger Brokers’ R&D team and based on leading AI models; Meanwhile, the intelligent investment analysis tool, TradingFront AI, provides real-time portfolio analysis and market insights for asset management businesses, helping investment advisors enhance their analysis efficiency and decision-making quality. While we believe this technology enhances user experience by delivering timely, concise and to-the-point investment-related information, the deployment and continuous development of such AI technologies involve inherent risks and uncertainties that could affect its adoption and our business. AI algorithms may be flawed, and the data used could be incomplete or biased. Inappropriate or controversial data practices, by us or by others, could limit the acceptance of our AI-enhanced products and content. Certain AI applications could trigger ethical issues. Should our AI-related offerings become controversial due to their effects on human rights, privacy, employment, or other social matters, we risk reputational harm or legal repercussions. In addition, uncertainties regarding the development and application of AI technology present a potential risk. There remains the possibility that AI technology may not progress as anticipated or deliver expected benefits, which could limit the acceptance and popularity of our AI- related offerings. New artificial intelligence algorithms and predictive models are emerging quickly and may be used by brokerage companies in providing brokerage services to customers. However, the use of new artificial intelligence models may make these companies more susceptible to potential bias, discrimination and data breaches. These concerns could lead to development of new, or modifications to, laws and regulations pertaining to the use of AI by these companies or the broader financial services sector, which may prove to be onerous for companies to implement in a timely manner. The use of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies, including generative artificial intelligence, has increased rapidly with increasing complexity and changes in the nature of the technology. Our potential uses of generative artificial intelligence may be subject to various risks including flaws or limitations in the large language models or training datasets that may result in biased or inaccurate results, ethical considerations, and the ability to safely deploy and implement governance and controls for such systems. Laws and regulations related to AI are evolving, and there is uncertainty as to potential adoption of new laws and regulations and the application of existing laws and regulations to use of artificial intelligence, which may restrict or impose burdensome and costly requirements on our ability to use artificial intelligence. In addition, there has been considerable patent and other intellectual property development activity in the artificial intelligence industry, which has resulted in litigation based on allegations of infringement or other violations of intellectual property rights. We may receive claims from third parties, including our competitors, alleging that our use of artificial intelligence technology infringes on or violates such third party's intellectual property rights. Adverse consequences of these risks related to artificial intelligence could undermine the decisions, predictions or analysis such technologies produce and subject us to competitive harm, legal liability, heightened regulatory scrutiny and brand or reputational harm. Our ability to adopt new technologies may be inhibited by the emergence of industry-wide standards, a changing legislative and regulatory environment, an inability to develop appropriate governance and controls, a lack of internal product and engineering expertise, resistance to change from consumers, or lack of appropriate change management processes or the complexity of our systems. In addition, our adoption of new technologies and our introduction of new products and services may expose us to new or enhanced risks, particularly in areas where we have less experience or our existing governance and control systems may be insufficient, which could require us to make substantial expenditures or subject us to legal liability, heightened regulatory scrutiny and brand or reputational harm. The regulatory and legal framework on generative AI is evolving rapidly and might not fully address every aspect of its research, development, and use. PRC government authorities have sped up creating laws for generative AI related technologies, such as algorithms and deep synthesis. Among other regulatory developments, the CAC, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security and the SAMR jointly issued the Administrative Provisions on Algorithm Recommendation for Internet Information Services, or the Algorithm Recommendation Provisions on December 31, 2021, which became effective on March 1, 2022. According to the Algorithm Recommendation Provisions, no organization or individual may use algorithm recommendation services to produce, reproduce, release or disseminate information prohibited by laws and administrative regulations, or to engage in activities that endanger national security and interests, damage the national image, infringe upon social public interests, disrupt the economic and social order or undermine the legitimate rights and interests of others. Specifically, the providers of algorithm recommendation services shall, among other things, establish and maintain management systems for algorithmic mechanism review, 58 Table of Contents data security and personal information protection. Besides, providers of algorithm recommendation services that influence public opinion or could mobilize society shall undergo security assessments and register its services with the CAC as required by applicable regulations. On November 25, 2022, the CAC, the MIIT and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the Administrative Provisions on the Deep Synthesis of Internet Information Services, or the Deep Synthesis Provisions, which became effective on January 10, 2023. The Deep Synthesis Provisions require providers of deep synthesis services to follow such requirements that are substantially the same as those applicable to algorithm recommendation service. On July 10, 2023, seven governmental authorities including the CAC published the Provisional Measures on AI-Generated Content Services, or the AIGC Measures, effective from August 15, 2023, setting compliance standards for generative AI service providers. The AIGC Measures require generative AI service providers to take responsibility for the content they produce in accordance with the law and ensure information security. Besides, providers of generative AI services that influence public opinion or could mobilize society shall undergo security assessments and follow procedures for registering or updating their algorithms as required by applicable regulations. Non-compliance with the AIGC Measures may subject the providers of generative-AI services to penalties, including warning, public denouncement, rectification orders and suspension of the provision of relevant services. On September 24, 2024, the State Council issued the Regulations on Network Data Security Administration, effective from January 1, 2025, which require network data processors offering generative-AI services to enhance the security management of training data and its processing activities, and to implement effective measures to prevent and address network data security risks. On March 7, 2025, the CAC, the MIIT, the Ministry of Public Security and NRTA jointly issued the Measures for Labeling AI-Generated or Synthesized Contents, or the Labeling Measures, effective from September 1, 2025. The Labeling Measures, among others, require the service providers of certain content generated or synthesized using AI technology to properly identify such content with visible and/or hidden labels to ensure transparency and compliance of AI content. However, since these laws and regulations are still relatively new and significant uncertainties remain with respect to their interpretation and implementation, we cannot assure you whether we will be able to comply with the requirements of such laws and regulations in a timely manner or at all. If we are unable to complete all necessary filings and/or assessments, or if we have any dispute with any third party relating to intellectual property or data security, our business operation may be adversely affected. We face risks related to our status as an anti-money laundering reporting entities and if the relevant regulatory authorities find fault with our compliance programs and engages in enforcement actions against us, our business and reputation may be adversely affected. Our business is subject to complex and changing laws, rules, regulations, policies, and legal interpretations in the markets in which we offer services directly or through partners, including, but not limited to, those governing cross-border and domestic money transmission, anti-money laundering, and counter-terrorist financing. Regulators and legislators globally have been establishing, evolving, and increasing their regulatory authority, oversight, and enforcement in a manner that impacts our business. As we introduce new products and services and expand into new markets, including through acquisitions, we expect to become subject to additional regulations, restrictions, and licensing requirements. As we expand and localize our international activities, we expect that our obligations in the markets in which we operate will continue to increase. Some of our subsidiaries are required to comply with regulatory anti-money laundering requirements. For example, as part of its supervisory function to monitor compliance, the Financial Markets Authorities (FMA) of New Zealand had visited Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited and Tiger Fintech (NZ) Limited, or Tiger Fintech for an Anti-Money Laundering/Combating the Financing of Terrorism (“AMLCFT”) inspection. If the regulatory authorities identify any issues in future proceedings or initiated enforcement actions against us, our business and reputation may be adversely affected. Failure to comply with applicable rules and regulations relating to segregation of customer funds may have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition, or reputation. Certain of our subsidiaries are subject to rules and regulations relating to the segregation of customer funds from our internal funds, set by local securities regulatory authorities and agencies, in the jurisdictions in which they operate. For example, Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited and Tiger Fintech (NZ) Limited are subject to such rules in New Zealand. If we fail to segregate our customer funds from our internal funds in accordance with applicable rules and regulations, we may be subject to regulatory action including private or public censure, fines, or other legal action, which may have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or reputation. As we increase the number of consolidated 59 Table of Contents accounts, we also expect cash segregated for regulatory purposes and payables to customers on our balance sheet to increase significantly. A failure in our information technology, or IT, systems could cause interruptions in our services, undermine the responsiveness of our services, disrupt our business, damage our reputation and cause losses. Our IT systems support all phases of our operations, including marketing, customer development and the provision of customer support services, and are an essential part of our technology infrastructure. Our technology infrastructure and compliance capabilities are critical for us to offer high quality products and services as well as to retain and attract users and customers. They also enable us to facilitate secure, fast and cost-efficient financial transactions on our platform. We must continue to upgrade and expand our technology infrastructure and to strengthen our compliance system to keep pace with the growth of our business and to develop new features and services for our users and customers. With the continuous improvement of our technology infrastructure and compliance capabilities, we are able to serve more consolidated accounts. From 2018 to 2025, we experienced rapid growth in the number of consolidated accounts and the number of consolidated accounts and corresponding assets under management already surpassed fully disclosed accounts. In connection with the growth of consolidated accounts, we expect our revenues to increase because the revenues for consolidated accounts are recognized on a gross basis including the full amount paid by customers while the revenues for fully disclosed accounts are recognized on a net basis after deducting the execution and clearing expenses paid to Interactive Brokers. We also expect cash segregated for regulatory purposes and payables to customers on our balance sheet to increase significantly as a result of such growth. We will invest more resources on customer verification, record keeping, compliance and trading-related functions for consolidated accounts. Our ability to serve more consolidated accounts, depends on, among other things, our ability to support all aspects of customer verification, record keeping and compliance functions using our technology and human resources. If our systems fail to perform, we could experience disruptions in operations, slower response time or decreased customer satisfaction. We must process, record and monitor a large number of transactions and our operations are highly dependent on the integrity of our technology systems and our ability to make timely enhancements and additions to our systems. System interruptions, errors or downtime can result from a variety of causes, including changes in customer usage patterns, technological failures, changes to our systems, linkages with third-party systems and power failures. Our systems are vulnerable to disruptions from human error, execution errors, errors in models such as those used for risk management and compliance, employee misconduct, unauthorized trading, external fraud, computer viruses, distributed denial of service attacks, computer viruses or cyberattacks, terrorist attacks, natural disaster, power outage, capacity constraints, software flaws, events impacting key business partners and vendors, and similar events. It could take an extended period of time to restore full functionality to our technology or other operating systems in the event of an unforeseen occurrence, which could affect our ability to process and settle customer transactions. Moreover, instances of fraud or other misconduct might also negatively impact our reputation and customer confidence in us, in addition to any direct losses that might result from such instances. Despite our efforts to identify areas of risk, oversee operational areas involving risks, and implement policies and procedures designed to manage these risks, there can be no assurance that we will not suffer unexpected losses, reputational damage or regulatory actions due to technology or other operational failures or errors, including those of our vendors or other third parties. While we devote substantial attention and resources to the reliability, capacity and scalability of our systems, extraordinary trading volume could cause our computer systems to operate at unacceptably slow speeds or even fail, affecting our ability to process customer transactions and potentially resulting in some customers’ orders being executed at prices they did not anticipate. Disruptions in service and slower system response time could result in substantial losses and decreased customer satisfaction. We are also dependent on the integrity and performance of securities exchanges, clearinghouses and other intermediaries to which customer orders are routed for execution and clearing. System failures and constraints and transaction errors at such intermediaries could result in delays and erroneous or unanticipated execution prices, cause substantial losses for our customers and for us, and subject us to claims from our customers for damages. While we currently maintain a disaster recovery and business continuity plan, which is intended to minimize service interruptions and secure data integrity, our plan may not work effectively during an emergency. The information technology system failure may lead to interruption of our operations, which in turn will prevent our customers from 60 Table of Contents trading and hence significantly reduce customer satisfaction and confidence in us, cause loss or reduce potential gain for our customers, or cause regulatory authorities’ investigation and penalization. Any such system failure could impair our reputation, damage our brand, subject us to claims and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition, operating results or prospects. If we fail to keep our technology updated as the industry evolves, our growth, revenues and business prospects may be materially and adversely affected. Our proprietary trading platform and customer relationship management system are critical to our business operations. In order to remain competitive, our proprietary technology is under continuous development and upgrade. If we fail to keep our technology updated as needed or as fast as our competitors or in a cost-effective manner, we may lose our competitiveness against our competitors. In addition, advancements in technology are occurring in our industry, including as companies increase use of data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI) and other technology as part of their business strategy. We will be at a competitive disadvantage if, over time, our competitors are more effective than us in their utilization of new technologies. Failure to compete may limit our service quality, lower customer confidence in us or otherwise adversely affect our business and prospects. With the rapid advancement of technology, we may encounter risks associated with emerging technologies. As AI continues to evolve, we have taken steps to adapt to technological advancements and ensure the application of new technologies. In April 2023, we introduced TigerGPT, an AI investment assistant developed by our Group based on OpenAI, aims to provide intelligent investment decision-making support for investors. It utilizes advanced natural language processing and machine learning technologies to understand users' natural language inputs, quickly extract relevant information from a large amount of financial data and information, and provide professional answers. Recently, we officially upgraded our AI investment assistant, TigerGPT to TigerAI and integrated with leading AI models, making it one of the first brokerage platform globally to incorporate such technology. Our goal of rolling out TigerAI is to provide accurate responses to investors’ questions based on reliable data. However, TigerAI utilizes AI technology provided by third parties and we cannot guarantee that it will provide accurate responses or that it will not make mistakes. In addition, despite our warning notices posted on the website to all investors that the answers provided by TigerAI are for reference purposes only and do not constitute financial advice, there remains a risk that investors may rely on AI recommendations for investment decisions. This could potentially result in financial losses for investors and consequently pose reputational risks for our company. We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights. We rely on a combination of trademark, copyright, trade secret and fair business practice laws globally to protect our proprietary technology, intellectual property rights and brand. We have not registered some of the names, logos and characters of our platform and products as trademarks, which may adversely affect our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations, if others register the same or similar terms as their own trademarks. Although we have submitted trademark applications for the names, logos and characters of our platform and products such as “Tiger Trade”, in jurisdictions for existing and potential business, there is no guarantee that our applications will be approved by the relevant authorities. Although we have adopted strict internal policies and have entered into confidentiality and invention assignment agreements with certain of our employees and/or relevant third parties and also rigorously control access to proprietary technology, it is possible that third parties may copy or otherwise obtain and use our proprietary technology without our authorization or otherwise infringe on our rights. We may also face claims of infringement that could interfere with our ability to use technology that is material to our business operations. We may also have to rely on litigation to enforce our intellectual property rights, protect our trade secrets, determine the validity and scope of the proprietary rights of others or defend against claims of infringement or invalidity, and may also have to attend litigation initiated against us. Any such litigation, whether successful or unsuccessful, could result in substantial costs and the diversion of resources and the attention of management, any of which could adversely affect our business. In addition, we may have to enter into royalty or licensing agreements where there can be no assurance that such licenses would be available on reasonable terms, if at all, and the settlement of these claims could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and operating results. 61 Table of Contents We are subject to counterparty risk whereby defaults by parties with whom we do business can have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. In our brokerage business, we are exposed to customer margin credit risk even though we automatically evaluate each account throughout the trading day and close out positions automatically for accounts that are found to be under-margined. Our policy of evaluating accounts and closing positions for accounts that are found to be underfunded may not be effective in situations in which no liquid market exists for the relevant securities or commodities or in which, for any reason, automatic liquidation for certain accounts has been disabled. If no liquid market exists or automatic liquidation has been disabled, we are subject to risks inherent in extending credit, especially during periods of rapidly declining markets. Any loss or expense incurred due to defaults by our customers in failing to repay margin loans or to maintain adequate collateral for these loans would cause harm to our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may be subject to intellectual property claims from others and applicable administrative penalties. We may in the future receive notices of claims for infringing upon other parties’ intellectual property rights. There can be no assurance that claims for infringement or invalidity (or claims for indemnification resulting from infringement claims) will not be asserted or prosecuted against us. To provide the user community with the latest news and online content, our community website (laohu8.com) was previously programmed to automatically collect and use certain contents provided by third parties without the appropriate authorization or license. Further, some of our users might repost the contents produced by third parties without authorization on our trading platform. The contents created by third parties and published by us or our users could lead to infringement claims. We may also be subject to administrative penalties brought by the National Copyright Administration in China or its local branches for alleged copyright infringement. We may not be able to promptly identify and remove all contents that may infringe upon third-party rights. Moreover, some right owners might not send us a notice before bringing a lawsuit against us. Thus, our failure to identify unauthorized contents posted on our trading platform can subject us to claims for infringement of third-party intellectual property rights or other rights. Even if we can and have removed all unauthorized content and are in the process of negotiating the license or permit, pursuant to the provisions of applicable laws and regulations, we believe our past violations or infringement might still expose us to potential claims or liabilities. We may fail to protect our platform from cyber-attacks, which may adversely affect our reputation, customer base and business. Despite our efforts to safeguard the information of our customers, system malfunctions, employee errors, misconducts or other factors may still occur, which may lead to Internet security emergency. Our computer system, the networks we use, the networks and online trading platforms of the exchanges and other third parties with whom we interact, are potentially vulnerable to physical or electronic computer break-ins, viruses and similar disruptive problems or security breaches. A party that is able to circumvent our security measures could misappropriate proprietary information or customer information, jeopardize the confidential nature of the information we transmit over the Internet and mobile network or cause interruptions in our operations. Also see “Item 3. Key Information – Certain Risks Related to Our Chinese Operations and Operating Structure – If we fail to protect customer data and privacy, our reputation, financial condition and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected.” We or our service providers may be required to invest significant resources to protect against the threat of security breaches or to alleviate problems caused by any breaches. To the extent that our activities involve the storage and transmission of proprietary information and personal financial information, security breaches could expose us to risks of financial loss, litigation and other liabilities. Any of these events, particularly if they result in a loss of confidence in our services, could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations. On July 10, 2025, we experienced a ransomware attack, resulting in restrictions of access to certain office environment shared folders in our US subsidiaries and completed the recovery of all of the affected file data on July 20, 2025. We engaged an independent third-party cybersecurity expert to investigate and address the incident, and we also promptly notified the relevant regulatory authorities but have not received any notices related to the commencement of any formal disciplinary proceedings with respect to this incident. To date, we have worked with data discovery and review team to determine the scope, nature, and extent of information potentially impacted. Recommended and implemented 62 Table of Contents remediation measures have already been adopted, including rebuilding affected devices, credential resets, enhanced monitoring and endpoint protection, phased migration away from the legacy VPN toward a zero-trust access model, and further strengthening of network segregation and ransomware defenses. For the year ended December 31, 2025, we incurred approximately $1.86 million of costs related to remediation, restoration, communications, investigation and analysis, legal services, and other related expenses. We will invest more on the prioritization and upgrade on our systems and network defenses, aiming to prevent similar incident in the future. There’s no other similar incident occurred for the year ended December 31, 2025. As of the date of this report, the incident did not materially affect us, our business strategy, results of operation or financial condition. We face risks related to potential insider trading, money laundering and securities fraud conducted by our customers which we cannot fully eliminate. Although our customer agreements require customers to acknowledge that they will observe all insider trading, money laundering and securities fraud laws and regulations in applicable jurisdictions and to assume liabilities for all restrictions, penalties and other responsibilities arising from conducts suspected to constitute insider trading, money laundering and/or, securities fraud, we cannot verify whether every transaction conducted by our customers is in compliance with such laws and regulations because our customers may circumvent our due diligence measures to commit insider trading and/or money laundering. In addition, we will review to see if our customers are politically exposed persons or on certain sanction lists (including but not limited to the lists of money laundering, terrorist financing or other crimes) through search systems provided by third-party suppliers. However, we may still be subject to certain legal or regulatory sanctions, fines or penalties, financial loss, or damage to reputation resulting from the failure of our customers to comply with insider trading and/or money laundering laws and regulations in the relevant jurisdictions. Also see Item 3.D “Risk Factors - Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We face risks related to our status as an anti-money laundering reporting entity in New Zealand and if the Financial Markets Authority finds fault with our AMLCFT programs and engages in enforcement actions against us, our business and reputation may be adversely affected.” We face risks related to our KYC procedures when our customers provide outdated, inaccurate, false or misleading information. We collect user information during the account opening and registration process and screen accounts against public databases for purpose of verifying customer identity and detecting risks. Although we require our customers to submit documents for proof of their identity and address for completing the account registration and to update such information from time to time, we face risks as the information provided by our customers may be outdated, inaccurate, false or misleading. We cannot fully confirm the accuracy, currency and completeness of such information beyond reasonable effort. For example, some of our customers are holders of the PRC identity card. Because the PRC identity cards are usually effective for more than ten years or some may have no expiration term, customers may have changed their domicile or citizenship, thus making them subject to applicable laws and regulations of jurisdictions other than PRC such as the U.S. In this situation, despite our effort to exclude persons who reside in jurisdictions where we have no license or permit such as the United States before the completion of the acquisition of US Tiger Securities, Inc., our provision of products and services to such customers could be in violation of the applicable laws and regulations in those jurisdictions, of which we may have no awareness until we are warned by the relevant supervising authorities. Despite our safeguards, we could still be subject to certain legal or regulatory sanctions, fines or penalties, financial loss, or damage to reputation resulting from such violations. In addition, although we and our vendors have strict internal policies for continuing KYC procedures after the activation of accounts and for issues such as anti-corruption, economic sanctions, anti-money laundering, export controls and securities fraud, we mainly rely on our continuing KYC procedures to ensure our compliance with relevant laws and regulations related to anti-corruption, economic sanctions, anti-money laundering, export controls and securities fraud. Although we have relevant trainings for our employees, our KYC system and procedures cannot be foolproof. Any potential flaw in our KYC system or any misconduct in the KYC procedures by any of our employees may also lead to our failure of compliance with such relevant laws and regulations, which will further subject us to certain legal or regulatory sanctions, fines or penalties, financial loss, or damage to reputation. Also see Item 3.D “Risk Factors-Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We face risks related to our status as an anti-money laundering reporting entity in New Zealand and if the Financial Markets Authority finds fault with our 63 Table of Contents AMLCFT programs and engages in enforcement actions against us, our business and reputation may be adversely affected.” We cannot guarantee the profitability of our customers’ investment or ensure that our customers can make rational investment judgement. Similar to other brokerage and financial services providers, we cannot guarantee the profitability of the investments made or accessed by customers on or through our trading platform or Fund Mall. The profitability of our customers’ investment is directly affected by elements beyond our control, such as economic and political conditions, broad trends in business and finance, changes in volume of securities and futures transactions, changes in the markets in which such transactions occur and changes in how such transactions are processed. Moreover, a substantial portion of our customers are retail investors who are less sophisticated compared with institutional investors. We provide a forum to facilitate the provision of financial and market information, and live market commentaries. Although these materials and commentaries contain prominent disclaimers, our customers may seek to hold us responsible when they use such information to make trading decisions and suffer financial loss on their trades, or if their trades are not as profitable as they have expected. Furthermore, it is possible that some customers could solely rely on certain predictive statements made by other customers on our trading platform, ignoring our alert warnings that customers should make their own investment judgement and should not predict future performance based on historical records. As a result, the financial loss of our customers will inevitably affect our performance in terms of transaction volumes and revenues as customers decide to abort trading. In addition, some customers who have suffered substantial losses on our platform may blame our platform, seek to recover their damages from us or bring lawsuits against us. If our reputation, or the reputation of our industry as a whole, is harmed, or the reputation of the industry as a whole is damaged, our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects may be materially and adversely affected. Our ability to attract and retain customers may be adversely affected if our reputation, or the reputation of our industry as a whole, is damaged. If we fail, or appear to fail, to deal with issues that may give rise to reputational risk, our business and prospects may be harmed. These issues include, but are not limited to, mishandling customer complaints, potential conflicts of interest, privacy breaches, customer data leak, improper sales practices, as well as failure to identify legal, credit, liquidity, and market risks inherent in our business. Failure to appropriately address these issues could reduce customer confidence in us or increase customer attrition rate, which may adversely affect our reputation and business. In addition, our ability to attract and retain customers may be adversely affected if the reputation of the industry as a whole is damaged. The perception of insufficient regulation and unfavorable reputation within the industry could materially and adversely affect our ability to attract and retain customers. Any fraudulent or allegedly fraudulent activities in the securities brokerage industry, which is beyond our control, may damage the reputation of the entire industry and may adversely affect our business operations and reputation. We depend on key management as well as experienced and capable personnel, and our business may be adversely affected if we are unable to hire and retain qualified employees. Our key management includes our Chief Executive Officer or CEO, Mr. Tianhua Wu and our Chief Financial Officer or CFO, Mr. John Fei Zeng. Our continued success is dependent upon the hire and retention of these key management members, as well as a number of other key managerial, marketing, sales, research, technical and operations personnel, and continuous recruitment of experienced and capable personnel. We do not have key man insurance and the loss of such key personnel could have a material adverse effect on our business. In addition, our ability to grow our business is dependent, to a large degree, on our ability to hire or retain such key management members and experienced personnel. If we lose any of our key management team members or fail to attract and retain professional personnel, we may not be able to execute our existing business strategies effectively or deliver excellent services to our customers, and our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. 64 Table of Contents We have exposure to interest rate risk. As a part of our business, we invest in interest-earning assets and are obligated on interest-bearing liabilities. Interest rate fluctuations primarily affect our interest income and interest expense. We earn interest income primarily from margin financing and securities borrowing and lending transactions and make interest payments on deposits we hold on behalf of our customers and borrowings provided by Interactive Brokers and other commercial lenders. Changes in interest rates could affect the interest earned on assets differently than interest paid on liabilities. A rising interest rate environment, generally results in a larger net interest spread. Conversely, a falling interest rate environment generally results in a smaller net interest spread. Our most prevalent form of interest rate risk is referred to as “gap” risk. This risk occurs when the interest rates we earn on assets change at a different frequency or scale than the interest rates we pay on liabilities. If we are unable to effectively manage our interest rate risk, changes in interest rates could have a material adverse effect on our profitability. Additionally, if we are not able to secure additional funding in the future from our existing counterparties or others on favorable terms or at all, our financial condition, growth prospects, and results of operations may be adversely affected. Our brokerage operations have exposure to liquidity risk. Our brokerage operations have exposure to liquidity risk. Maintaining adequate liquidity is crucial to our brokerage operations, including key functions such as transaction settlement and margin lending. We are subject to liquidity and capital adequacy requirements in various jurisdictions. Our liquidity needs are primarily met by equity contribution and revenue generation. A reduction of funds available from these sources may require us to seek other potentially more expensive forms of financing, such as potential borrowings on revolving credit facilities. Our liquidity could be constrained if we are unable to obtain financing on acceptable terms, or at all, due to a variety of unforeseen market disruptions. Inability to meet our funding needs in a timely manner would have a material adverse effect on our business. Fluctuations in the value of Renminbi could result in foreign currency exchange losses. A substantial portion of our operating costs and expenses is denominated in Renminbi, while most of our revenues are denominated in U.S. dollars. Consequently, fluctuations in exchange rates, primarily those involving U.S. dollar, may affect the relative purchasing power of these proceeds and our balance sheet and earnings per share in U.S. dollars. In addition, appreciation or depreciation in the value of Renminbi relative to U.S. dollar would affect our financial results reported in U.S. dollar terms without giving effect to any underlying change in our business, financial condition or results of operations. Renminbi may appreciate or depreciate significantly in value against U.S. dollar in the long term, depending on the fluctuation of the basket of currencies against which it is currently valued, or it may be permitted to enter into a full float, which may also result in a significant appreciation or depreciation of Renminbi against U.S. dollar. The hedging options available in China to reduce our exposure to exchange rate fluctuations are quite limited. To date, we have not entered into any hedging transactions in an effort to reduce our exposure to foreign currency exchange risk. While we may decide to enter into hedging transactions in the future, the availability and effectiveness of these hedges may be limited and we may not be able to hedge our exposure adequately or at all. In addition, our currency exchange losses may be magnified by PRC exchange control regulations that restrict our ability to convert Renminbi into foreign currency. We are exposed to credit risk with customers. A portion of our revenues arises from or is related to margin financing provided to our customers. By permitting customers to purchase securities on margin, we are subject to risks inherent in extending credit, especially during periods of heightened market volatility. Substantial fluctuations in market values of securities and the failure to honor their commitments by our customers on margin financing and securities borrowing and lending transactions could have a material adverse effect on our revenues and profitability. We may be subject to litigation risk which could adversely affect our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations. 65 Table of Contents We are subject to arbitration claims and lawsuits in the ordinary course of our business. For example, in June 2023 we were the defendant in the securities class action lawsuit filed in the United States District Court for the Central District of California, alleging that our annual report contained misleading statements and material omissions. The case was subsequently transferred to the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (“SDNY”). In July 2024, we filed a motion to dismiss. On March 27, 2025, the court granted our motion to dismiss the securities class action in its entirety, on the grounds that the plaintiff failed to identify any statement we made that were false or misleading, and that our disclosures adequately warned investors of the risks and uncertainties of the legal landscape in China. On April 21, 2025, the plaintiff filed a second amended complaint. On July 1, 2025, we submitted a motion to dismiss this action. On March 26, 2026, the court granted our motion to dismiss with prejudice and dismissed the second amended complaint in its entirety. Plaintiffs have thirty days or until April 26, 2026 to appeal on such order. In addition, we have been named as one of the defendants in litigation proceedings relating to IPOs in which we served as underwriters in the course of our underwriting business. We maintain our position that the complaints in these proceedings lack merit, and we are committed to vigorously defending ourselves. However, it's important to acknowledge that any current or potential future legal actions against us may result in settlements, awards, injunctions, fines, penalties or other adverse outcome. Predicting the outcome of such matters is inherently difficult, particularly where claims are brought on behalf of various classes of claimants or by a large number of claimants, when claimants seek substantial or unspecified damages or when investigations or legal proceedings are at an early stage. A substantial judgment, settlement, fine or penalty could be material to our operating results or cash flows for a particular period, depending on our results for that period, or could cause us significant reputational harm, which could harm our business prospects. In market downturns, the volume of legal claims and amount of damages sought in litigation and regulatory proceedings against securities brokerage companies have historically increased. We are also subject to litigation claims from third parties alleging infringement of their intellectual property rights. Also see Item 3.D “Risk Factors-Risks Related to Our Business and Industry-We may be subject to intellectual property claims from others and applicable administrative penalties.” Such litigation can require the expenditure of significant resources, regardless of whether the claims have merit. If we were found to have infringed a third-party patent or other intellectual property right, then we could incur substantial liability and in some circumstances could be enjoined from using the relevant technology or providing related products and services, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations. Our operations require our employees to frequently interact with our existing and potential customers. Although we have prudent internal procedures and policies in place and we monitor employees’ interaction with existing and potential customers through our customer relations management system, or our CRM system, it is difficult to detect and deter misconducts and inappropriate behaviors of all of our employees and the precautions we take to prevent and detect such behaviors may not be effective in all cases. Our employees could misappropriate customer information, conduct improper activities on behalf of our customers, make false or misleading statements, falsely promise investment returns to attract customers to trade, mis-record or otherwise try to hide improper activities from us. Misconduct by our employees or former employees could give rise to customer claims against us, including claims for negligence, fraud, failures to supervise, breaches of fiduciary duty, transactions and intentional misconduct. These customer claims, regardless of their merits, could subject us to substantial losses and seriously harm our reputation. In addition, such customer claims may escalate into litigations or arbitrations. The outcome of any arbitration or litigation is inherently uncertain, and defending against these claims could be both costly and time-consuming, and could significantly divert the efforts and resources of our management and other personnel. A judgment against us in any such litigation could incur financial and reputation damage on our business. Even if we prevail in such litigation or arbitration, we could incur significant legal expenses. Our insurance coverage may be inadequate to cover risks related to our business and operation. While we maintain certain insurance such as professional liability insurance and directors and officers liability insurance for Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited and certain other subsidiaries, there is no assurance that our insurance coverage will be adequate to cover potential losses. For instance, we do not carry additional policies such as data security insurance, business interruption insurance, or liability insurance covering risks like customer complaints, litigation, or other operational liabilities. As a result, our existing insurance may not adequately protect us from such potential losses and liabilities. In addition, customers of our consolidated accounts are not protected under the scheme of the Securities Investor Protection Corporation, or the SIPC. 66 Table of Contents Although we believe that our insurance coverage is in line with industry practice in the relevant jurisdictions such as New Zealand, the United States, Singapore and China, if any of the incidents mentioned above occurs and we do not have sufficient insurance to cover the liabilities associated with such incidents, it could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations and business prospects. Some of our customers reach us on social media platforms, leading to our difficulties in maintaining all required communication records. Under the relevant laws and regulations, we are required to keep the records of our communications with customers concerning orders or complaints. To ensure all of our users and customers are best served, we occasionally provide customer service on popular social media platforms in a similar way as other market players in both our industry and other various industries. However, we cannot solve all the difficulties arising therefrom because the social media platforms usually do not have functions that telephone or email operation systems use for keeping the communication records long term. Non-compliance with these requirements could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. New lines of business or new services may subject us to additional risks. From time to time, we may implement new lines of business or offer new services within existing lines of business. For example, we commenced futures trading in March 2016 and our IPO underwriting business experienced significant growth in 2021. In addition, we have been granted a BVI trustee license and working on operational setup to offer a wider selection of trust services. There are substantial risks and uncertainties associated with these efforts, particularly in instances where the markets are not fully developed. In developing and marketing new lines of business and/or new services, we may invest significant time and resources. Initial timetables for the introduction and development of new lines of business and/or new services may not be achieved and profitability targets may not prove feasible. External factors, such as compliance with regulations, competition and shifting market preferences, may also impact the successful implementation of a new line of business or a new service. Our personnel and technology systems may fail to adapt to the changes in such new areas or we may fail to effectively integrate new services into our existing operation and we may lack experience in managing new lines of business or new services. In addition, we may be unable to proceed our operation as planned or compete effectively due to different competitive landscapes in these new areas. Even if we expand our businesses into new jurisdictions or areas, the expansion may not yield intended profitable results. Any new line of business and/or new service could have a significant impact on the effectiveness of our internal control system. Furthermore, expansion of our existing lines of business and entry into new lines of business may expose us to additional litigation risk, including the risk of class-action litigation. Failure to successfully manage these risks in the development and implementation of new lines of business or new services could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. We are in the process of expanding our international operations, which exposes us to significant risks. Our growth strategy includes expanding our international services and customer base. Expansion into new markets will require significant management attention and financial resources worldwide. Additionally, we will be exposed to additional regulatory, operational, market, litigation, and publicity risks. In addition to those risks described under the heading “Any future change in the regulatory and legal regime for the securities brokerage industry may have a significant impact on our business model,” we will be exposed to additional risks as a result of doing business internationally, including: •the difficulty of managing and staffing international operations and the increased operations, travel, infrastructure and legal compliance costs associated with numerous international locations; •challenges to our corporate culture resulting from a dispersed workforce; •new and different sources of competition; 67 Table of Contents •difficulties in complying with a wider array of regulatory requirements, including without limitation regulations relating to currency and capital, transfers of funds, taxation, privacy and protection of customer data, broker-dealer requirements, and intellectual property; •compliance with various anti-bribery and anti-corruption laws such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, or FCPA; •adverse tax consequences; •fluctuations in currency exchange rates; and •political or social developments, including unrest or economic instability, in a specific country or region in which we operate, which could have an adverse impact on our operations in that location. Our failure to manage any of these risks successfully could harm our planned international expansion and adversely affect our business, operating results and financial condition. We may not be able to develop our margin financing and securities lending business as expected and may be exposed to credit risks related to these businesses. In addition, we need adequate funding at reasonable costs to successfully operate our margin financing business, and access to adequate funding at reasonable costs cannot be assured. Our margin financing and securities lending businesses may not develop as expected if clients fail to perform contractual obligations or the value of collateral held to secure the obligations is inadequate. We have adopted comprehensive internal policies and procedures designed to manage such risks. For example, once the margin value falls below the outstanding amount of the relevant loan extended as a result of a market downturn or adverse movement in the prices of the pledged securities, we will make a margin call requesting the client to deposit additional funds, sell securities or pledge additional securities to top up their margin value. If the client’s margin value still falls below the required standard, we will initiate our liquidation protection mechanism on a real-time basis to bring the client’s account into margin compliance. Nevertheless, we cannot assure you that we will not be exposed to any credit risks associated with our margin financing and securities lending businesses, and we may experience disputes with our clients after we make the margin calls. In particular, we may not always be able to fully recover the margin value through margin calls and our exposure to credit loss may be exacerbated during periods of high market volatility. Moreover, the growth and success of our margin financing business depend on the availability of adequate funding to meet our client demand for loans through our platform. We provided margin financing service for securities listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, Singapore Exchange and the major stock exchanges in the U.S., and we provided securities lending services for securities listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the major stock exchanges in the U.S. We derive the funding for our margin financing business from a variety of sources, including funding secured from commercial banks, other licensed financial institutions and other parties as well as financing generated from our business operations. To the extent there is insufficient funding from institutional funding partners who are willing to accept the credit risk related to the collateral from our clients, the funds available for our margin financing business might be limited and our ability to provide margin financing services to our clients to address their demand for loans would be adversely impacted. In addition, as we strive to offer our clients competitively priced services and the online brokerage market is intensely competitive, we may attempt to further reduce our interest expense from our funding partners. If we cannot continue to maintain our relationship with these funding partners and obtain adequate funding at reasonable costs, we may not be able to continue to offer or grow our margin financing business. To the extent that our funding partners find the risk-adjusted returns with us less attractive, we may not be able to obtain the requisite level of funding at reasonable costs, or at all. If we are unable to provide our clients with margin loans or fund the loans on a timely basis due to insufficient funding or less favorable pricing compared to those of our competitors, it would harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. The wealth management products that we offer involve various risks and failure to identify or fully appreciate such risks may negatively affect our reputation, client relationships, results of operations and financial conditions. In addition, we rely on a limited number of wealth management product providers. 68 Table of Contents We offer our clients access to money market, fixed income, equity, balanced, private funds as well as bonds, catering to different investment targets and risk preferences of our clients. These products often have complex structures and involve various risks, including default risks, interest risks, liquidity risks, market risks, counterparty risks, fraud risks and other risks. In addition, we are subject to regulations in relation to wealth management products offering in different jurisdictions, and there is no assurance that our operation will be deemed as in full compliance with such regulations at all times. Our success in offering our wealth management products and services depends, in part, on our ability to successfully identify the risks associated with such products and services, and failure to identify or fully appreciate such risks may negatively affect our reputation, client relationships, results of operations and financial conditions. Although we do not guarantee the principal or the return of the wealth management products available through our platform and do not bear any liabilities for any loss to capital invested in the products, we must be cautious of the selection of the financial products we offer and must accurately describe the risks associated with those products for our clients. Although we enforce and implement strict risk management policies and procedures, such risk management policies and procedures may not be fully effective in mitigating the risk exposure for all of our clients in all market environments or covering all types of risks. If we fail to identify and fully appreciate the risks associated with the financial products we offer, or fail to disclose such risks to our clients, or if our clients suffer financial losses or other damages resulting from the financial products we offer, our reputation, client relationships, results of operations and financial conditions will be materially and adversely affected. We rely on a number of third parties who provide us with wealth management products, and our relationships with these product providers are integral to the smooth operation of our wealth management business. If our relationships with third-party service providers deteriorate or third-party service providers decide to terminate our respective business relationships for any reasons, such as to work with our competitors on more exclusive or favorable terms or if they themselves become our competitors, our operation may be disrupted. Our operations may be subject to transfer pricing adjustments by competent authorities. We use transfer pricing arrangements to account for business activities among our subsidiaries in different jurisdictions. There is no assurance that the tax authorities in any of the jurisdictions where we operate would not subsequently challenge the appropriateness of our transfer pricing arrangements or that the relevant regulations or standards governing such arrangements will not be subject to future changes. If a competent tax authority later finds that the transfer prices and the terms that we have applied are not appropriate, such authority may require us or our subsidiaries to re-assess the transfer prices and re-allocate the income or adjust the taxable income. Any such reallocation or adjustment could result in a higher overall tax liability for us and may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may be unable to effectively manage our rapid growth. The rapid growth of our business during our limited operation history has placed significant demands on our management and other resources. As we grow, we may also need to enhance the reliability and scalability of our proprietary technology, network infrastructure and other aspects of our IT systems. We may need to hire additional professionals in such areas as sales and marketing, customer support and risk management as well as other personnel to serve the enlarged customer base. Implementation of new business arrangements, expansion of technology infrastructure and increase in the number of employees may further increase our operational complexity and impose higher standards on every aspect of our operations. Our management team may fail to effectively cope with the increased operational complexity, and we may fail to integrate new resources into our existing operation system. Therefore, we may not be able to maintain current growth rate or manage our growth effectively. We face risks related to natural disasters, health epidemics, terrorist attacks and other outbreaks, which could significantly disrupt our operations. The occurrence, especially in the regions and cities where we have business, of unforeseen or catastrophic events, including the emergence of a pandemic such as widespread health emergencies, terrorist attacks or natural disasters, could create economic and financial disruptions, lead to operational difficulties that could impair our ability to manage our businesses, and expose our business activities to significant losses. Our management team are principally located 69 Table of Contents in Beijing, China; Hong Kong, China; Auckland, New Zealand; the United States and Singapore. A significant portion of our technical research and development, customer service, support teams are based in Beijing, China. Most of our data centers are located in Hong Kong and Beijing, China. Although we have recovery and business continuity plans for our data centers, we cannot guarantee that these plans would be adequate to mitigate the adverse effects to our sustainable operations caused by such unforeseen or catastrophic events. In addition, the major stock exchanges our operations rely on are in the U.S. and Hong Kong. Our operations could also be severely disrupted if the exchanges we operate on were affected by natural disasters, health epidemics or man-caused disasters. An unforeseen or catastrophic event in any of the regions mentioned above could adversely impact our operations. Our results of operations, cash flows and financial condition could be affected by the effects of climate change, including severe weather and other geological events in the locations where our customers, suppliers or regulators operate. Climate change may cause severe and volatile weather and other geological events, including hurricanes, earthquakes, wildfires, rising sea levels, floods, increased heat index, droughts, or tsunamis, that could disrupt our operations or the operations of our customers, suppliers, data service providers and regulators. The frequency and severity of these events may increase over time. Natural disasters or other disruptions at any of our facilities or our suppliers’ facilities, may impair or delay the operation, development, provisions or delivery of our products and services. Additionally, disruptions experienced by our regulators due to natural disasters or otherwise could delay our introduction of new products or entry into new jurisdictions where regulatory approval is necessary. While we insure against certain business interruption risks, we cannot assure that such insurance will compensate us for any losses incurred as a result of natural or other disasters. We also cannot provide assurance that we will be able to obtain sufficient insurance to protect our business from these risks at a favorable price or at all. Any serious disruption to our operations, or those of our customers, suppliers, data service providers, or regulators, could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, cash flows and financial condition. Climate change may also have a negative impact on the financial condition of our customers, which may decrease revenues from those customers and increase the credit exposures to those customers. This effect would be amplified if a region in which a large number of our customers are based is affected. Additionally, our reputation and customer relationships may be negatively impacted by our involvement, or our customers’ involvement, in certain industries or projects associated with causing or exacerbating climate change, as well as any decisions we make to continue to conduct or change our activities in response to considerations relating to climate change. New regulations or guidance relating to climate change, as well as the perspectives of shareholders, employees and other stakeholders regarding climate change, may affect whether and on what terms and conditions we engage in certain activities or offer certain products. Additionally, transitioning to a low-carbon economy will likely require extensive policy, legal, technology and market changes. Transition risks, including changes in consumer preferences and additional regulatory and legislative requirements, including carbon taxes, could increase our expenses and adversely impact our strategies and those of our customers, which could lead to a decrease in our customer account balances. The long-term effects of climate change on the global economy and our operations in particular are unclear. Environmental regulations or changes in the supply, demand or available sources of energy or other resources may affect the availability, cost, or demand for goods and services and may increase the costs of our supplies, power and other infrastructure services on which we rely to operate. Negative media coverage related to, and our relationships with, our service providers and/or former shareholders could adversely affect our business. We may be affected by publicity relating to our service providers and/or shareholders. For example, in September 2018, there was negative publicity involving certain senior officers of iResearch, the industry consultant we commissioned to prepare an industry report in connection with our initial public offering. According to a public announcement made by iResearch, certain senior officers of iResearch are cooperating with governmental investigations in China. Although we were informed by iResearch that its department involved in such negative media coverage did not provide data for the preparation of the iResearch Report, such publicity may raise questions as to the 70 Table of Contents integrity of the industry data or opinions produced by iResearch, including the data in the iResearch Report produced in connection with our initial public offering, or otherwise have a negative impact on our reputation. Risks Related to Doing Business in China Geopolitical and regulatory tensions between the U.S. and China, and on a larger scale internationally, may dampen growth in China and other markets where the majority of our customers reside, and our activities and results may be negatively impacted. In 2018, the U.S. government began imposing new or higher tariffs on specified products imported from China to penalize China for what it characterizes as unfair trade practices, and China responded by imposing new or higher tariffs on specified products imported from the U.S. While the U.S. and China signed an agreement in January 2020 to ease some of these tariffs, others remain in place, and additional tariffs or other regulatory requirements or restrictions could be imposed by one or both countries in the future. In 2025, the trade tensions have escalated with the U.S. announcing new tariff increases on imports from nearly all economies, including heightened rates on Chinese imports. China has implemented reciprocal tariff measures in responses. Further reciprocal tariff increases by both sides remain possible. Although we are not currently subject to the existing tariff measures, such tariffs, future tariffs, or other regulatory actions may adversely affect the economic growth in China and other markets and the financial condition of our customers. In addition, the recent escalation in reciprocal tariff increases has contributed to heightened equity market volatility and downward pressure on global indices, which may result in trading volume contraction, asset valuation decline, and eventually adversely affect our brokerage business. Any potential decrease in the spending powers of our target customers could result in a negative impact on our operations. In addition, the current and future actions or escalations by either the U.S. or China that affect trade relations may cause global economic turmoil and potentially have a negative impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations, and we cannot provide any assurance as to whether such actions will occur or the form that they may take. PRC economic, political and social conditions as well as government policies could adversely affect our business and prospects. We mainly conduct our brokerage operations in New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong and the United States and conduct technology research and development in China through our PRC subsidiaries, the VIEs and their subsidiaries. Because technology development is our key backbone for our operations in a long run, our financial condition and results of operations are subject to influences from PRC’s economic, political and social conditions to a great extent. The PRC economy differs from the economies of most developed countries in many aspects, including, but not limited to, the degree of government involvement, control of capital investment, control of foreign exchange, allocation of resources, growth rate and development level. For approximately three decades, the PRC government has implemented economic reform measures to utilize market forces in the development of the PRC economy. We cannot predict whether changes in the PRC’s economic, political and social conditions and in its laws, regulations and policies will have any adverse effect on our current or future business, financial condition or results of operations. In addition, many of the economic reforms carried out by the PRC government are unprecedented or experimental and are expected to be refined and improved over time. This refining and improving process may not necessarily have a positive effect on our operations and business development. We may be subject to penalties for failure to fully comply with the NDRC and the MOFCOM filing requirements for historical overseas investments. Historically, before we established our offshore holding structure, our PRC operating entity, Beijing Rongke, had established Tiger Technology Corporation Limited, or Tiger Technology, in Hong Kong, which thereafter acquired our New Zealand registered companies, Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited, and Tiger Holdings Group Limited, or Tiger Holdings. Under the applicable PRC laws and regulations, PRC entities need to obtain approvals from or file with the National Development and Reform Commission, or the NDRC and the Ministry of Commerce, or the MOFCOM, or their local branches before conducting any overseas investments, and are also required to apply for additional approvals or file or make certain amendments if any change occurs to such overseas investments. Beijing Rongke has filed with the relevant branch of the MOFCOM for investing in Tiger Technology, but failed to update such filing for Tiger Technology’s further investments in Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited and Tiger Holdings. It also failed to file with 71 Table of Contents the NDRC for the overseas investment as required under then effective PRC laws. Failure to conduct such filing procedures may subject us to an order of suspension of Beijing Rongke’s investment in Tiger Technology, and may result in the inability for Beijing Rongke to enjoy relevant policy favors for three years. As of the date of this report, we have not received any rectification requirements or penalties from the NDRC or the MOFCOM. In addition, we took certain rectification measures. For instance, we transferred all equity interest in Tiger Brokers (NZ) Limited from Tiger Technology to our Singapore subsidiary, Tiger Fintech (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. for commercial needs, and we de-registered our filing with MOFCOM. However, we cannot assure you that these rectifications will fully satisfy the relevant regulatory authorities’ requirements or we will not be subject to investigation or scrutiny from regulators even though we had not yet received any negative opinion or penalty for our historical overseas investments so far. If the NDRC or the MOFCOM imposes any penalties on us or requires us to make any further rectifications, our business and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. The enforcement of the Labor Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China, or the PRC Labor Contract Law, and other labor-related regulations in the PRC may increase our labor costs and impose limitations on our labor practices. On June 29, 2007, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC, in China enacted the PRC Labor Contract Law, which became effective on January 1, 2008 and was amended on December 28, 2012. The PRC Labor Contract Law introduces specific provisions related to fixed-term employment contracts, part-time employment, probation, consultation with labor unions and employee assemblies, employment without a written contract, dismissal of employees, severance, and collective bargaining, which together represent enhanced enforcement of labor laws and regulations. According to the PRC Labor Contract Law, an employer is obliged to sign an unfixed-term labor contract with any employee who has worked for the employer for 10 consecutive years. Further, if an employee requests or agrees to renew a fixed-term labor contract that has already been entered into twice consecutively, the resulting contract must have an unfixed term, subject to certain exceptions. The employer must pay economic compensation to an employee where a labor contract is terminated or expires in accordance with the PRC Labor Contract Law, except for certain situations which are specifically regulated. In addition, the government has issued various labor-related regulations to further protect the rights of employees. According to such laws and regulations, employees are entitled to an annual leave ranging from 5 to 15 days and are able to be compensated for any untaken annual leave days due to the employer’s reason in the amount of three times of their daily salary. As a result of these regulations, which are designed to enhance labor protection, we expect our labor costs to increase, as the continued success of our business depends significantly on our ability to attract and retain qualified personnel. In the event that we decide to change our employment or labor practices, the PRC Labor Contract Law and its implementation rules may also limit our ability to affect those changes in a manner that we believe to be cost-effective. In addition, as the interpretation and implementation of these new regulations are still evolving, our employment practices may not be at all times deemed in compliance with the new regulations. If we are subject to severe penalties or incur significant liabilities in connection with labor disputes or investigations, our business and financial condition may be adversely affected. In addition, on December 28, 2012, the PRC Labor Contract Law was amended to impose more stringent requirements on labor dispatches, and such amendments became effective on July 1, 2013. For example, the number of dispatched contract workers that an employer hires may not exceed a certain percentage of the total number of employees to be decided by the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, and the dispatched contract workers can only engage in temporary, auxiliary or substitute work. According to the Interim Provisions on Labor Dispatch, or the Interim Provisions, promulgated by the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security on January 24, 2014, which became effective on March 1, 2014, the number of dispatched contract workers hired by an employer shall not exceed 10% of the total number of its employees (including both directly hired employees and dispatched contract workers). The Interim Provisions further requires the employer that is not in compliance with the above provisions to formulate a plan to reduce the number of its dispatched contract workers to below 10% of the total number of its employees prior to March 1, 2016. Such limitations on use of dispatched labor may increase our labor costs and impose limitations on our employment practices, which may adversely affect our business and profitability. Failure to make adequate contributions to various employee benefit plans as required by the PRC regulations may subject us to penalties. 72 Table of Contents Companies operating in China are required to participate in various government-sponsored employee benefit plans, including certain social insurances, housing funds and other welfare-oriented payment obligations, and contribute to the plans in amounts equal to certain percentages of salaries, including bonuses and allowances, of our employees up to a maximum amount specified by the local government from time to time at locations where we operate our businesses. The requirement of employee benefit plans has not been implemented consistently by the local governments in China given the different levels of economic development in different locations. Our PRC operating entities incorporated in various locations in China have not made adequate employee benefit payments and we have recorded accruals for estimated underpaid amounts in our financial statements. We may be required to make up the contributions for these plans as well as to pay late fees and fines. Regulators may impose penalties and fines with respect to shortfall in social insurance payment. A late payment fee at the rate of 0.05% per day of the outstanding amount from the due date may be imposed, and if such amounts remain outstanding beyond a prescribed time limit, a fine of one to three times of the outstanding amount may be imposed. While there are no explicit quantitative statutory fines or penalties on late payments of housing funds according to Regulations on the Housing Provident Fund (Revised in 2019), the housing accumulation fund management center may order us to pay any housing fund shortfalls immediately. In addition, if we become subject to any fines or penalties in relation to the underpaid employee benefits, our financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. Any failure to comply with PRC regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee share incentive plans may subject the PRC plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions. Pursuant to the Notice on Issues Concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plan of Overseas Publicly Listed Company, issued by the SAFE in February 2012, employees, directors, supervisors and other senior management participating in any stock incentive plan of an overseas publicly listed company who are PRC citizens or who are non-PRC citizens residing in China for a continuous period of not less than one year, subject to a few exceptions, are required to register with the SAFE through a domestic qualified agent, which could be a PRC subsidiary of such overseas listed company, and complete certain other procedures. We and our directors, executive officers and other employees who are PRC citizens or who reside in the PRC for a continuous period of not less than one year and who have been granted restricted shares, restricted share units or options became subject to these regulations since our company became an overseas listed company. Failure to complete the SAFE registrations may subject them to fines and legal sanctions and may also limit our ability to contribute additional capital into our wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries in China. We also face regulatory uncertainties that could restrict our ability to adopt additional incentive plans for our directors and employees under PRC law. In addition, the State Administration of Taxation, or the SAT, has issued certain circulars concerning employee share options or restricted shares. Under these circulars, the employees working in the PRC who exercise share options or are granted restricted share units will be subject to PRC individual income tax. The PRC subsidiaries of such an overseas listed company have obligations to file documents related to employee share options or restricted shares with relevant tax authorities and to withhold individual income taxes of those employees who exercise their share options. If the employees fail to pay or the PRC subsidiaries fail to withhold their income taxes in compliance with relevant laws and regulations, the PRC subsidiaries may face sanctions imposed by the tax authorities or other PRC government authorities. We may be deemed to be a PRC resident enterprise under the Enterprise Income Tax Law, or the EIT Law, and be subject to the PRC taxation on our worldwide income, which may significantly increase our income tax expenses and materially decrease our profitability. Under the EIT Law that took effect on January 1, 2008, enterprises established outside of China whose “de facto management bodies” are located in China may be considered PRC tax resident enterprises for tax purposes and may be subject to a uniform 25% corporate income tax on their global income (excluding dividends received from “resident enterprises”). In addition, the Notice Regarding the Determination of Chinese-Controlled Offshore-Incorporated Enterprises as PRC Tax Resident Enterprises on the Basis of De Facto Management Bodies, or Circular 82, which was issued by SAT on April 22, 2009 and most recently amended on December 29, 2017 sets out certain standards for determining whether the “de facto management body” of an offshore enterprise controlled by a PRC enterprise is 73 Table of Contents located in China. Although the Circular 82 applies only to offshore enterprises controlled by PRC enterprises, rather than those controlled by Chinese or foreign individuals or foreign enterprises (such as our company), the determining criteria set forth in the Circular 82 may reflect SAT’s general position on how the “de facto management body” test should be applied in determining the tax resident status of offshore enterprises, regardless of how they are controlled by PRC enterprises. Although our company is not controlled by a PRC enterprise, substantial uncertainties remain as to whether our company or any of our other non-PRC entities will be deemed a PRC resident enterprise for the EIT purposes. If we or any of our subsidiaries registered outside the PRC are to be deemed a “resident enterprise” under the EIT Law, our income tax expenses may increase significantly, and our profitability could decrease materially. We face uncertainty with respect to indirect transfers of equity interests in PRC resident enterprises by their non-PRC holding companies. On February 3, 2015, the SAT issued the Circular on issues of enterprise Income Tax on Indirect Transfer of Assets by Non-PRC Resident Enterprise, or the SAT Circular 7 pursuant to which if a non-resident enterprise transfers the equity interests of a PRC resident enterprise indirectly by transfer of the equity interests of an offshore holding company (other than prescribed exempted situations including the purchase and sale of shares in public securities market) without a reasonable commercial purpose, the PRC tax authorities have the power to reassess the nature of the transaction and the indirect equity transfer might be treated as a direct transfer. As a result, the gain derived from such transfer, that is attributable to the PRC taxable properties will be subject to the PRC withholding tax at a rate of 10%. Under the SAT Circular 7, the transfer which meets all of the following circumstances shall be deemed as having no reasonable commercial purpose: (i) over 75% of the value of the equity interests of the offshore holding company are directly or indirectly derived from PRC taxable properties; (ii) at any time during the year before the indirect transfer, over 90% of the total properties of the offshore holding company are directly or indirectly constituted by investments within PRC territory, or in the year before the indirect transfer, over 90% of the offshore holding company’s total income is directly or indirectly derived from within PRC territory; (iii) the function performed and risks assumed by the offshore holding company and its subsidiaries that directly or indirectly hold PRC taxable properties are insufficient to substantiate its economic substance; or (iv) the foreign income tax imposed on the indirect transfer is lower than the PRC tax that may be imposed in the event of a direct transfer of the PRC taxable properties. The SAT Circular 7 and its interpretation by relevant PRC authorities clarify that an exemption is available for transfers of shares in a publicly-traded entity that is listed overseas if the purchase of the shares and the sale of the shares both take place in the open market. However, if a shareholder of an entity that is listed overseas purchases shares in the open market and sells them in a private transaction, or purchases shares in a private transaction and sells them in the open market, the PRC tax authorities might deem such a transfer to be subject to the SAT Circular 7, which could subject such shareholder to additional reporting obligations or tax burdens. Accordingly, if a holder of our shares or ADSs purchases our shares or ADSs in the open market and sells them in a private transaction, or purchases our shares or ADSs in a private transaction and sells them in the open market, and fails to comply with the SAT Circular 7, the PRC tax authorities may take actions, including requesting us to provide assistance for their investigation or impose a penalty on us, which could have a negative impact on our business operations. In addition, since we may pursue acquisitions as one of our growth strategies, and may conduct acquisitions involving complex corporate structures, the PRC tax authorities might impose taxes on capital gains or request that we submit certain additional documentation for their review in connection with any potential acquisitions, which may incur additional acquisition costs, or delay our acquisition timetable. The PRC tax authorities have discretion under the SAT Circular 7 to make adjustments to the taxable capital gains based on the difference between the fair value of the equity interests transferred and the cost of investment. We may pursue acquisitions in the future that involve complex corporate structures. If we are considered a non-resident enterprise under the EIT Law and if the PRC tax authorities make adjustments to the taxable income of these transactions under the SAT Circular 7, our income tax expenses associated with such potential acquisitions will be increased, which may have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. Our leased property interest may be defective and our right to lease the properties may be affected by such defects, which could cause significant disruption to our business. Under the applicable PRC laws and regulations, all lease agreements are required to be registered with the local housing authorities. The landlords of certain of our leased premises in China may have not completed the registration 74 Table of Contents of their ownership rights or our leases with the relevant authorities. Failure to complete these required registrations may expose our landlords, lessors and us to potential monetary fines. If these registrations are not obtained in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to monetary fines or may have to relocate our offices, which will incur the associated losses and adversely affect our normal business operations. Proceedings instituted by the SEC against the Big Four PRC-based accounting firms, including our independent registered public accounting firm, could result in financial statements being determined to not be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act. In late 2012, the SEC commenced administrative proceedings under Rule 102(e) of its Rules of Practice and also under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 against the mainland Chinese affiliates of the “Big Four” accounting firms (including the mainland Chinese affiliate of our independent registered public accounting firm). A first instance trial of the proceedings in July 2013 in the SEC’s internal administrative court resulted in an adverse judgment against the firms. The administrative law judge proposed penalties on the Chinese accounting firms including a temporary suspension of their right to practice before the SEC, although that proposed penalty did not take effect pending review by the Commissioners of the SEC. On February 6, 2015, the four China-based accounting firms each agreed to a censure and to pay a fine to the SEC to settle the dispute and avoid suspension of their ability to practice before the SEC and audit U.S.-listed companies. The settlement required the firms to follow detailed procedures and to seek to provide the SEC with access to Chinese firms’ audit documents via the CSRC. Under the terms of the settlement, the underlying proceeding against the four China-based accounting firms was deemed dismissed with prejudice four years after entry of the settlement. The four-year mark occurred on February 6, 2019. In 2022, the PCAOB announced that it signed a Statement of Protocol with the CSRC and the Ministry of Finance, which it described as the first step toward opening access for the PCAOB to inspect and investigate completely registered public accounting firms in mainland China and Hong Kong and subsequently vacated its 2021 determination that the positions taken by authorities in mainland China and Hong Kong prevented it from inspecting and investigating completely registered public accounting firms headquartered in those jurisdictions. Under the settlement, the SEC accepted that future requests by the SEC for the production of documents would normally be made to the CSRC. The Chinese accounting firms would receive requests matching those under Section 106 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, and would be required to abide by a detailed set of procedures with respect to such requests, which in substance would require them to facilitate production via the CSRC. The CSRC for its part initiated a procedure whereby, under its supervision and subject to its approval, requested classes of documents held by the accounting firms could be sanitized of problematic and sensitive content so as to render them capable of being made available by the CSRC to U.S. regulators. In view of the PCAOB’s decision to vacate its 2021 determination and until such time as the PCAOB issues any new adverse determination, the SEC has stated that there are no issuers at risk of having their securities subject to a trading prohibition under the HFCAA. However, whether the PCAOB will continue to be able to satisfactorily conduct inspections of PCAOB-registered public accounting firms headquartered in mainland China and Hong Kong is subject to uncertainty and depends on a number of factors out of our control. We cannot predict whether, in cases where the CSRC does not authorize production of requested documents to the SEC, the SEC will further challenge the four PRC-based accounting firms’ compliance with U.S. law. If additional challenges are imposed on the Chinese affiliates of the “big four” accounting firms, we could be unable to timely file future financial statements in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act. In the event that the SEC restarts the administrative proceedings, depending upon the final outcome listed companies in the United States with major PRC operations may find it difficult or impossible to retain auditors in respect of their operations in the PRC, which could result in financial statements being determined to not be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act, including possible delisting. Moreover, any negative news about any such future proceedings against these accounting firms may cause investor uncertainty regarding China-based, United States-listed companies and the market price of our ADSs may be adversely affected. If the Chinese affiliate of our independent registered public accounting firms was denied, even temporarily, the ability to practice before the SEC and we were unable to timely find another registered public accounting firms to audit and issue an opinion on our financial statements, our financial statements could be determined not to be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act. Such a determination could ultimately lead to the delisting of our ADSs 75 Table of Contents from the Nasdaq Global Select Market or deregistration from the SEC, or both, which would substantially reduce or effectively terminate the trading of our ADSs in the United States. Risks Related to Our Class A Ordinary Shares and ADSs The trading prices of our ADSs are likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors. The trading prices of our ADSs have been and are likely to continue to be volatile and have fluctuated and may continue to fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, like the performance and fluctuation in the market prices or the underperformance or deteriorating financial results of other similarly situated companies that have listed their securities in the U.S. in recent years. The securities of some of these companies have experienced significant volatility since their initial public offerings, including, in some cases, substantial price declines in the trading prices of their securities. The trading performances of these companies’ securities after their offerings may affect the attitudes of investors toward such companies listed in the United States, which consequently may affect the trading performance of our ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance. In addition, securities markets may from time to time experience significant price and volume fluctuations that are not related to our operating performance, such as the large decline in share prices in the United States and other jurisdictions. For example, historically the coronavirus pandemic and the volatility in oil prices had a significant negative impact on securities market prices and contributed to increased volatility. These and other factors may continue to affect the broader securities markets and, consequently, our business and results of operations. In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume for our ADSs may be highly volatile for factors specific to our own operations, including the following: •variations in our revenues, earnings and cash flow; •announcements of new product and service offerings, investments, acquisitions, strategic partnerships, joint ventures, or capital commitments by us or our competitors; •changes in the performance or market valuation of our company or our competitors; •changes in financial estimates by securities analysts; •changes in the number of our users and customers; •fluctuations in our operating metrics; •failures on our part to realize monetization opportunities as expected; •additions or departures of our key management and personnel; •release of lock-up or other transfer restrictions on our outstanding equity securities or sales of additional equity securities; •detrimental negative publicity about us, our competitors or our industry; •news regarding governmental or regulatory developments or focus that may affect our industry or us specifically; •market conditions affecting us or our industry; and •potential litigations or regulatory investigations. 76 Table of Contents Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the trading volume and the price at which our ADSs will trade. In the past, shareholders of a public company often brought securities class action suits against the listed company following periods of instability in the market price of that company’s securities. If we were involved in a class action suit, it could divert a significant amount of our management’s attention and other resources from our business and operations, which could harm our results of operations and require us to incur significant expenses to defend the suit. Any such class action suit, whether or not successful, could harm our reputation and restrict our ability to raise capital in the future. In addition, if a claim is successfully made against us, we may be required to pay significant damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations. We have granted and may grant additional employee share options and other share-based compensation awards in the future. Any additional grant of employee share options and other share-based compensation awards in the future may have a material adverse effect on our results of operations. We have adopted and may adopt employee share option plans for the purpose of granting share-based compensation awards to our employees, officers, directors and other eligible persons to incentivize their performance and align their interests with ours. For more information on these share incentive plans, see Item 6. B “Compensation-2018 Share Incentive Plan” and “-2019 Performance Incentive Plan.” As a result of these grants and potential future grants, we expect to continue to incur significant share-based compensation expenses in the future. The amount of these expenses is based on the fair value of the share-based awards. We account for compensation costs for all share options using a fair-value-based method and recognize expenses in our combined and consolidated statements of comprehensive income and other comprehensive income in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The expenses associated with share-based compensation will decrease our profitability, perhaps materially, and the additional awards issued under share-based compensation plans will dilute the ownership interests of our shareholders, including holders of our ADSs. However, if we limit the scope of our share-based compensation plan, we may not be able to attract or retain key personnel who expect to be compensated by such share-based awards. Our investors may experience dilution if we issue additional shares or ADSs. We have in the past issued additional equity or securities convertible into equity, and we may do so again in the future. In 2021 we offered and sold an aggregate of US$155.0 million principal amount of convertible notes. In March and April 2026, we fully repaid the principal of US$100.0 million and the accumulated interest of the convertible notes. The residual remains potentially convertible into our ADSs. Additionally, in 2024, we completed our follow-on public offering of 17,250,000 of our ADSs, at a public offering price of US$6.25 per ADS, each representing 15 of our Class A ordinary shares. The issuance of additional equity, including pursuant to the conversion of our outstanding convertible notes, would result in further dilution to our shareholders and may result in a decline in the market value of our ADSs. We incur increased costs as a result of being a public company. We have incurred and expect to continue to incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses as a result of our becoming a public company. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and Nasdaq, imposes various requirements on the corporate governance practices of public companies. These rules and regulations increase our legal and financial compliance costs and make some corporate activities more time-consuming and costly. Additionally, now that we are no longer an “emerging growth company,” we have incurred and expect to incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the other rules and regulations of the SEC. The sale or availability for sale, or perceived sale or availability for sale, of substantial amounts of our ADSs could adversely affect their market price. Sales of substantial amounts of our ADSs in the public market, or the perception that these sales could occur, could adversely affect the market price of our ADSs and could materially impair our ability to raise capital through equity offerings in the future. There were 181,380,909 ADSs (equivalent to 2,720,713,635 Class A ordinary shares) outstanding as of March 31, 2026. We may also issue additional options in the future that may be exercised for additional Class A ordinary shares. We cannot predict what effect, if any, market sales of securities held by our 77 Table of Contents significant shareholders or any other shareholder or the availability of these securities for future sale will have on the market price of our ADSs. Our dual-class share structure with different voting rights limits investors’ ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transactions. We have and will maintain a dual-class share structure such that our ordinary shares consist of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares. In respect of matters requiring the votes of shareholders, a holder of Class B ordinary shares is entitled to 20 votes per share, while holders of Class A ordinary shares are entitled to one vote per share based on our dual-class share structure. Each Class B ordinary share is convertible into one Class A ordinary share by the holder thereof, subject to certain conditions, while Class A ordinary shares are not convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances. Upon any sale of Class B ordinary shares by a holder thereof to any person other than Mr. Tianhua Wu or any entity which is not a permitted affiliate to Mr. Tianhua Wu, such Class B ordinary shares are automatically and immediately converted into the same number of Class A ordinary shares. Mr. Tianhua Wu and his family beneficially own all of our issued Class B ordinary shares. As of March 31, 2026, these Class B ordinary shares constitute 3.43% of our total issued and outstanding share capital and 43.18% of the aggregate voting power of our total issued and outstanding share capital due to the disparate voting powers associated with our dual-class share structure. See Item 7.A “Major Shareholders.” As a result of the dual-class share structure and the concentration of ownership, holders of Class B ordinary shares will have considerable influence over matters such as decisions regarding mergers, consolidations and the sale of all or substantially all of our assets, election of directors and other significant corporate actions. Such holders may take actions that are not in the best interest of us or our other shareholders. This concentration of ownership may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could have the effect of depriving our other shareholders of the opportunity to receive a premium for their shares as part of a sale of our company and may reduce the price of our ADSs. This concentrated control limits holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial. As a result of Mr. Tianhua Wu’s control of our Class B ordinary shares, Mr. Wu will effectively control the outcome of shareholder actions in our company and may take actions that might not be beneficial to holders of our Class A ordinary shares or ADSs. Mr. Tianhua Wu holds the voting rights attached to all of our Class B ordinary shares and to all of the options or restricted share units awarded under the 2018 Share Incentive Plan, 2019 Performance Incentive Plan and Amended and Restated 2019 Performance Incentive Plan. As each Class B ordinary share entitles its holder to 20 votes per share, such Class B ordinary shares in the aggregate represent approximately 43.18% of the combined total voting rights in our company. Mr. Wu’s Class A and Class B ordinary shares give him the power to control any actions that require shareholder approval under Cayman Islands law, our memorandum and articles of association, and the Nasdaq requirements. Mr. Wu could have sufficient voting rights to determine the outcome of all matters requiring shareholder approval even if he should, at some point in the future, hold considerably less than a majority of the combined total of our outstanding ordinary shares. Mr. Wu’s voting power may prevent a transaction involving a change of control of us, including transactions in which holders of our Class A ordinary shares or ADSs might otherwise receive a premium for securities over the then-current market price. Similarly, Mr. Wu may approve a merger or consolidation of our company which may result in holders of our Class A ordinary shares or ADSs receiving a stake (either in the form of shares, debt obligations or other securities) in the surviving or new consolidated company which may not operate our current business model and dissenter rights may not be available to such holders in such an event. We are a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act and therefore are exempt from certain provisions applicable to U.S. domestic public companies. Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities rules and regulations in the United States that are applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, including but not limited to: 78 Table of Contents •the rules under the Exchange Act requiring the filing with the SEC of quarterly reports on Form 10-Q or current reports on Form 8-K; •the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the solicitation of proxies, consents, or authorizations in respect of a security registered under the Exchange Act; •the sections of the Exchange Act requiring insiders to file public reports of their stock ownership and trading activities and liability for insiders who profit from trades made in a short period of time; and •the selective disclosure rules by issuers of material nonpublic information under Regulation FD. We are required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. In addition, we intend to publish our results in press releases, distributed pursuant to the rules and regulations of the Nasdaq. Press releases relating to financial results and material events will also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC will be less extensive and less timely compared to that required to be filed with the SEC by U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, investors may not avail themselves of the same information or protection that would be available to investors in a U.S. domestic issuer. On June 4, 2025, the SEC issued a concept release seeking public comment on potential revisions to the definition of foreign private issuer under U.S. securities laws. The concept release considers whether the current criteria, such as the thresholds for U.S. ownership, voting control, board composition, and place of business, appropriately capture today’s global market realities. The SEC is evaluating whether updates are warranted to ensure consistent application of disclosure and reporting requirements under the Exchange Act and to address potential disparities between foreign private issuers and domestic issuers. If the SEC revises the definition of foreign private issuer and we no longer qualify as one under the revised standard, we would become subject to the same reporting and disclosure requirements that apply to U.S. domestic issuers. This change would increase our regulatory compliance burden, including the need to file periodic reports on U.S. domestic forms, comply with U.S. proxy solicitation rules, and adhere to more extensive executive compensation and beneficial ownership disclosure obligations. Any such loss of foreign private issuer status could result in higher compliance costs, increased administrative complexity, and potential adverse effects on our investor relations and market perception. Because we are a foreign private issuer organized under the laws of a non-U.S. country, it may be more difficult for investors and regulators to bring actions against us and our officers and directors. We are organized under the laws of the Cayman Islands, and many of our subsidiaries are organized under the laws of other jurisdictions outside the United States, including the PRC, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, and Australia. Because we and many of our subsidiaries are not U.S. companies and carry out a majority of our operations outside the United States, it may be more difficult for investors and regulators to bring suits against us and our management, including class action securities law and fraud claims, than it would be to bring claims against a U.S. company. As a foreign private issuer with ADSs listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, we follow certain home country corporate governance practices instead of certain Nasdaq requirements. As a foreign private issuer whose ADSs are listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, we are permitted to follow certain home country corporate governance practices instead of certain Nasdaq requirements. A foreign private issuer that elects to follow its home country practice must submit to The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC a written statement from an independent counsel in such issuer’s home country certifying that the issuer’s practices are not prohibited by the home country’s laws. In addition, a foreign private issuer must disclose in its annual reports filed with the SEC each Nasdaq requirement with which it does not comply followed by a description of its applicable home country practice. As a company incorporated in the Cayman Islands with ADSs listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, we follow our home country practice instead of Nasdaq requirements that mandate that: •the board of directors be comprised of a majority of independent directors; 79 Table of Contents •the directors be selected or nominated by a majority of the independent directors or a nomination committee comprised solely of independent directors; •the board of directors adopt a formal written charter or board resolution addressing the director nominations process and such related matters as may be required under the U.S. federal securities laws; and •the compensation of our executive officers be determined or recommended by a compensation committee comprised solely of independent directors. The dual-class structure of our ordinary shares may adversely affect the trading market for our ADSs. Certain shareholder advisory firms have announced changes to their eligibility criteria for inclusion of shares of public companies on certain indices, including the S&P 500, to exclude companies with multiple classes of shares and companies whose public shareholders hold no more than 5% of total voting power from being added to such indices. In addition, several shareholder advisory firms have announced their opposition to the use of multiple class structures. As a result, the dual class structure of our ordinary shares may prevent the inclusion of our ADSs representing Class A ordinary shares in such indices and may cause shareholder advisory firms to publish negative commentary about our corporate governance practices or otherwise seek to cause us to change our capital structure. Any such exclusion from indices could result in a less active trading market for our ADSs. Any actions or publications by shareholder advisory firms critical of our corporate governance practices or capital structure could also adversely affect the value of our ADSs. Holders of our ADSs may not be able to participate in rights offerings and may experience dilution of your holdings as a result. We may from time to time distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire our securities. Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, the depositary will not offer those rights to ADS holders unless both the rights and the underlying securities to be distributed to ADS holders are either registered under the Securities Act, or exempted from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of ADSs. We are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to any such rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to cause such a registration statement to be declared effective. In addition, we may not be able to take advantage of any exemptions from the registration under the Securities Act. Accordingly, holders of the ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution in their holdings as a result. Judgments obtained against us and our directors and officers by our shareholders may not be enforceable in our home jurisdiction. We are a Cayman Islands company and a significant percentage of our current brokerage operations are conducted in New Zealand. In addition, a significant majority of our current directors and officers are nationals and residents of jurisdictions other than the United States, including China. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for shareholders to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that they believe that their rights have been infringed under the U.S. federal securities laws, including the civil liability provisions of the U.S. securities laws, or otherwise. Even if shareholders are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands, New Zealand, China and other jurisdictions where we operate may render them unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers. There are uncertainties as to whether Cayman Islands courts would: •recognize or enforce against us, judgments of courts of the U.S. based on certain civil liability provisions of the U.S. securities laws; and •impose liabilities against us, in original actions brought in the Cayman Islands, based on certain civil liability provisions of the U.S. securities laws that are penal in nature. There is no statutory recognition in the Cayman Islands of judgments obtained in the United States, although the courts of the Cayman Islands will under certain circumstances recognize and enforce a non-penal judgment of a foreign court 80 Table of Contents of competent jurisdiction without retrial on the merits provided that (a) such courts had proper jurisdiction over the parties subject to such judgment; (b) such courts did not contravene the rules of natural justice of the Cayman Islands; (c) such judgment was not obtained by fraud; (d) the enforcement of the judgment would not be contrary to the public policy of the Cayman Islands; (e) no new admissible evidence relevant to the action is submitted prior to the rendering of the judgment by the courts of the Cayman Islands; and (f) there is due compliance with the correct procedures under the laws of the Cayman Islands. If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price for our ADSs and trading volume could decline. The trading market for our ADSs depends in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our industry. If research analysts do not establish and maintain adequate research coverage or if the analysts who cover us downgrade our ADSs or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our industry, the market price for our ADSs might decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which in turn could cause the market price or trading volume for our ADSs to decline. The depositary for our ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs if holders of our ADSs do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, except under limited circumstances, which could adversely affect our ADS holders’ interests. Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, if a holder of our ADSs does not give instructions for voting the Class A ordinary shares underlying their ADSs, the depositary will give us a discretionary proxy to vote those Class A ordinary shares at the shareholders’ meeting unless: •we have failed to timely provide the depositary with a notice of meeting and related voting materials; •we have instructed the depositary that we do not wish a discretionary proxy to be given; •we have informed the depositary that there is substantial opposition as to a matter to be voted on at the meeting; •a matter to be voted on at the meeting would have a material adverse impact on shareholders; or •the voting at the meeting is to be made on a show of hands. The effect of this discretionary proxy is that holders of our ADSs cannot prevent our Class A ordinary shares underlying their ADSs from being voted at the shareholder meeting, except under the circumstances described above. This may make it more difficult for shareholders to influence the management of our company. Holders of our Class B ordinary shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy. The deposit agreement may be amended or terminated without the consent of holders of our ADSs. We and the depositary may amend or terminate the deposit agreement without the consent of holders of our ADSs. Such amendment or termination may be done in favor of our company. Holders of our ADSs are entitled to a prior notice in the event of a materially prejudicial amendment or termination thereof. If holders continue to hold their ADSs after an amendment to the deposit agreement, they agree to be bound by the deposit agreement as amended. The deposit agreement may be terminated at any time upon a prior written notice. Upon the termination of the deposit agreement, our company will be discharged from all obligations under this deposit agreement except for its obligations to the depositary thereunder. If we do not pay dividends in the future, investors must rely on price appreciation of our ADSs for return on your investment. 81 Table of Contents Our board of directors may from time to time declare dividends or authorize other distributions to our shareholders, subject to certain restrictions under the Cayman Islands law, namely that our company may only pay dividends out of profits or share premium, and provided always that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid out of share premium if this would result in our company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our board of directors. Even if our board of directors decides to declare and pay dividends, the timing, amount and form of future dividends, if any, will depend on, among other things, our future results of operations and cash flow, our capital requirements and surplus, the amount of distributions, if any, received by us from our subsidiary, our financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Accordingly, the return on an investment in our ADSs will likely depend entirely upon any future price appreciation of our ADSs. There is no guarantee that our ADSs will appreciate in value or even maintain the price at which investors purchased the ADSs. Investors may not realize a return on their investment in our ADSs and may even lose their entire investment in our ADSs. Holders of our ADSs may not receive dividends or other distributions on our Class A ordinary shares and may not receive any value for them, if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to. To the extent that we decide to pay a dividend or make other distributions in the future, the depositary of our ADSs has agreed to pay to holders of our ADSs such cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on Class A ordinary shares or other deposited securities underlying our ADSs, after deducting its fees and expenses. Holders of our ADSs will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of Class A ordinary shares their ADSs represent. However, the depositary is not responsible if it decides that it is unlawful or impractical to make a distribution available to any holders of ADSs. For example, it would be unlawful to make a distribution to a holder of ADSs if there are securities that require the registration under the Securities Act but such securities are not properly registered or distributed under an applicable exemption from the registration. The depositary may also determine that it is not feasible to distribute certain property through the mail. Additionally, the value of certain distributions may be less than the cost of mailing them. In these cases, the depositary may determine not to distribute such property. We have no obligation to register under the U.S. securities laws any ADSs, Class A ordinary shares, rights or other securities received through such distributions. We also have no obligation to take any other action to permit the distribution of ADSs, Class A ordinary shares, rights or anything else to holders of ADSs. This means that holders of our ADSs may not receive distributions we make on our Class A ordinary shares or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to them. These restrictions may cause a material decline in the value of our ADSs. Holders of our ADSs may be subject to limitations on the transfer of ADSs. ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may close its books from time to time for a number of reasons, including in connection with corporate events such as a rights offerings when the depositary needs to maintain an exact number of ADS holders on its books for a specified period. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays in the United States. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register the transfers of our ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary think that it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason in accordance with the terms of the deposit agreement. As a result, holders of our ADSs may be unable to transfer their ADSs when they wish to under these circumstances. Our amended and restated memorandum and articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could discourage a third party from acquiring us, which could limit our shareholders’ opportunity to sell their shares, including Class A ordinary shares represented by the ADSs, at a premium. The Company operates pursuant to a fourth amended and restated memorandum and articles of association. Some provisions of our fourth amended and restated memorandum and articles of association may discourage, delay or prevent a change of control of our company or management that shareholders may consider favorable, including provisions that: authorize our board of directors to issue preference shares in one or more series and to designate the price, rights, preferences, privileges and restrictions of such preference shares without any further vote or action by 82 Table of Contents our shareholders; and limit the ability of shareholders to requisition and convene general meetings of shareholders. Under Cayman Islands law, our directors may only exercise the rights and powers granted to them under our fourth amended and restated memorandum and articles of association for a proper purpose and for what they believe in good faith to be in the best interests of our company. However, these provisions could still have the effect of depriving our shareholders of an opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over prevailing market prices by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transaction. There is a substantial risk that we will be a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for 2025 and future taxable years, which could result in adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. investors in our ADSs or Class A ordinary shares. In general, a non-U.S. corporation is a PFIC for U.S. federal income tax purposes for any taxable year in which (i) 50% or more of the average value of its assets (generally determined on a quarterly basis) consists of assets that produce, or are held for the production of, passive income, or (ii) 75% or more of its gross income consists of passive income. For purposes of the above calculations, a non-U.S. corporation that owns, directly or indirectly, at least 25% by value of the shares of another corporation is treated as if it held its proportionate share of the assets of the other corporation and received directly its proportionate share of the income of the other corporation. Passive income generally includes dividends, interest (and income equivalent to interest), investment gains and certain rents and royalties. Cash is generally a passive asset for these purposes. The value of goodwill and other intangibles is generally treated as an active asset to the extent attributable to business activities that produce active income. Our PFIC status for any taxable year will depend on the composition of our income and assets and the value of our assets from time to time and therefore may change from year to year. Our annual PFIC status is subject to significant uncertainties. For example, because we hold, and will continue to hold after this offering, a substantial amount of cash and cash equivalents, our annual PFIC status will depend in part on the value of our goodwill and other intangible assets for the relevant taxable year. The value of our goodwill and other intangible assets may be determined, in part, by reference to our market capitalization, which has been, and may continue to be, volatile. If the value of our goodwill and other intangible assets is so determined, our annual PFIC status will be affected by fluctuations of our market capitalization. In addition, the extent to which our goodwill and other intangible assets should be treated as active is not entirely clear, and we may be a PFIC if a significant portion of our goodwill and other intangible assets is treated as passive. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear whether certain items of our assets and liabilities shown on our balance sheet should be disregarded for purposes of the PFIC rules. For example, it is not entirely clear whether portions of the cash and other assets reflected on our balance sheet should be excluded from the value of our assets to the extent they are held for, or attributable to, our customers and are treated as our customers’ assets for certain local law purposes (“customers’ assets”). We believe it is reasonable to treat such customers’ assets as not forming part of our assets for PFIC purposes, but there can be no assurance that the Internal Revenue Service, or the IRS, will not successfully challenge this position, in which case we will likely be a PFIC. The extent to which certain of such customers’ assets (and corresponding liabilities) should be so disregarded for purposes of the PFIC rules is also not entirely clear. In addition, it is not entirely clear how the contractual arrangements between us and our VIEs will be treated for purposes of the PFIC rules, and we may be or become a PFIC if our VIEs are not treated as owned by us for these purposes. While we believe it is reasonable to determine that we are not a PFIC for 2025, there can be no assurance regarding our PFIC status because the PFIC determination is highly factual. For these reasons, there is a substantial risk we are a PFIC for 2025 and will be a PFIC in future taxable years. If we are a PFIC for any taxable year during which a U.S. taxpayer owns ADSs or Class A ordinary shares, the U.S. taxpayer generally will be subject to adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences (generally, regardless of whether we cease to be a PFIC for subsequent taxable years), including increased tax liability on disposition gains and certain “excess distributions” and reporting requirements. For more information on the U.S. tax consequences to certain U.S. investors that would result from our classification as a PFIC, see Item 10.E “Taxation-Material United States Federal Income Taxation-Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.” Under certain attribution rules, certain of our non-U.S. subsidiaries are expected to be treated as controlled foreign corporations for U.S. federal income tax purposes, and, as a result, there could be adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. investors that own our ADSs or Class A ordinary shares (directly or indirectly) and are treated as “Ten Percent Shareholders.” 83 Table of Contents Certain “Ten Percent Shareholders” (as defined below) in a non-U.S. corporation that is a controlled foreign corporation, or a CFC, for U.S. federal income tax purposes generally are required to include in income for U.S. federal income tax purposes their pro rata share of the CFC’s “Subpart F income,” investment of earnings in U.S. property and “global intangible low taxed income,” or “net CFC tested income,” as applicable, even if the CFC has made no distributions to its shareholders. A non-U.S. corporation generally will be a CFC for U.S. federal income tax purposes if Ten Percent Shareholders own, directly, indirectly or constructively (through attribution), more than 50% of either the total combined voting power of all classes of stock of such corporation entitled to vote or of the total value of the stock of such corporation. A “Ten Percent Shareholder” is a United States person (as defined by the U.S. Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended) that owns directly or indirectly, or is considered to own constructively, 10% or more of the total combined voting power of all classes of stock entitled to vote of such corporation or 10% or more of the total value of the stock of such corporation. We are not expected to be a CFC. However, the determination of CFC and have been subject to recent changes in tax law. Under certain “downward attribution” rules applicable till the 2025 taxable year certain of our non-U.S. subsidiaries are expected to be treated as constructively controlled by our U.S. subsidiaries and therefore our non-U.S. subsidiaries are expected to be treated as CFCs. We do not intend to provide information to Ten Percent Shareholders that may be required in order for those shareholders to properly report their U.S. taxable income with respect to our or our subsidiaries’ operation. Prospective investors that may be or become Ten Percent Shareholders who directly or indirectly own our ADSs or Class A ordinary shares should consult their tax advisers with respect to the potential adverse tax consequences of investing in us.